James II of England
James VII and II | |
---|---|
William III & II | |
Born | 14 October 1633 (N.S.: 24 October 1633) St James's Palace, Westminster, England |
Died | 16 September 1701 (aged 67)[a] (N.S.) Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France |
Burial | |
Spouses | |
Issue more... | |
House | Stuart |
Father | Charles I of England |
Mother | Henrietta Maria of France |
Religion |
|
Signature |
James VII and II (14 October 1633
James succeeded to the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland following the death of his brother, with widespread support in all three countries, largely because the principles of eligibility based on divine right and birth were widely accepted.[6] Tolerance of his personal Catholicism did not extend to tolerance of Catholicism in general, and the English and Scottish parliaments refused to pass his measures. When James attempted to impose them by decree, this was met with opposition; some academics have, however, argued that it was a political principle, rather than a religious one, that ultimately led to his removal.[7]
In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis. Firstly, the birth of James's son and heir
Leading members of the English political class invited William of Orange to assume the English throne. When William landed in Brixham on 5 November 1688, James's army deserted and he went into exile in France on 23 December. In February 1689, a special Convention Parliament held that James had "vacated" the English throne and installed William and Mary as joint monarchs, thereby establishing the principle that sovereignty derived from Parliament, not birth. James landed in Ireland on 14 March 1689 in an attempt to recover his kingdoms, but, despite a simultaneous rising in Scotland, in April a Scottish Convention followed that of England, both finding that James had "forfeited" the throne and offered it to William and Mary. After his defeat at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, James returned to France, where he spent the rest of his life in exile at Saint-Germain, protected by Louis XIV. While his contemporary opponents often portrayed him as an absolutist tyrant, some historians—beginning in the 20th century—have praised James for advocating religious tolerance. More recent scholarship has tended to take a middle ground between these views.
Early life
Birth
James, the second surviving son of King Charles I and his wife, Henrietta Maria of France, was born at St James's Palace in London on 14 October 1633.[9] Later that same year, he was baptized by William Laud, the Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury.[10] He was educated by private tutors, along with his older brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers.[11] At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral; the position was initially honorary, but became a substantive office after the Restoration, when James was an adult.[12] He was designated Duke of York at birth,[13] invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642,[14] and formally created Duke of York in January 1644.[10][13]
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
In August 1642, long-running political disputes between Charles I and his opponents in Parliament led to the First English Civil War. James and his brother Charles were present at the Battle of Edgehill in October, and narrowly escaped capture by Parliamentarian cavalry.[15] He spent most of the next four years in the Royalist wartime capital of Oxford,[15][16] where he was made a Master of Arts by the University on 1 November 1642 and served as colonel of a volunteer regiment of foot.[17] Following the surrender of Oxford in June 1646, James was taken to London and held with his younger siblings Henry, Elizabeth and Henrietta in St James's Palace.[18]
Frustrated by their inability to agree terms with Charles I, and with his brother Charles out of reach in
Exile in France
James, like his brother, sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under
In the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain—an enemy of France—for support, and an alliance was made. In consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turenne's army.[24] James quarrelled with his brother over the diplomatic choice of Spain over France. Exiled and poor, there was little that either Charles or James could do about the wider political situation, and James ultimately travelled to Bruges and (along with his younger brother, Henry) joined the Spanish army under the Prince of Condé in Flanders, where he was given command as Captain-General of six regiments of British volunteers[23] and fought against his former French comrades at the Battle of the Dunes.[25]
During his service in the Spanish army, James became friendly with two Irish Catholic brothers in the Royalist entourage, Peter and Richard Talbot, and became somewhat estranged from his brother's Anglican advisers.[26] In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace by the Treaty of the Pyrenees. James, doubtful of his brother's chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy.[27] Ultimately, he declined the position; by the next year the situation in England had changed, and Charles II was proclaimed King.[28]
Restoration
First marriage
After the collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, Charles II was restored to the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland. Although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children.[29] On 31 December 1660, following his brother's restoration, James was created Duke of Albany in Scotland, to go along with his English title, Duke of York.[30] Upon his return to England, James prompted an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement to Anne Hyde, the daughter of Charles's chief minister, Edward Hyde.[31]
In 1659, while trying to seduce her, James promised he would marry Anne.
The couple's first child, Charles, was born less than two months later, but died in infancy, as did five further children.
James's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions.[37] Even so, he kept mistresses, including Arabella Churchill and Catherine Sedley, and was reputed to be "the most unguarded ogler of his time".[36] Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary that James "did eye my wife mightily".[36] James's taste in women was often maligned, with Gilbert Burnet famously remarking that James's mistresses must have been "given [to] him by his priests as a penance".[38] Anne Hyde died in 1671.
Military and political offices and royal slavery
Settlement on Duke of York Act 1663 | |
---|---|
Act of Parliament | |
Repealed | 28 July 1863 |
Other legislation | |
Amended by | Post Office Revenues Act 1670 |
Repealed by | Statute Law Revision Act 1863 |
Status: Repealed | |
Text of statute as originally enacted |
Post Office Revenues Act 1670 | |
---|---|
Act of Parliament | |
Dates | |
Royal assent | 22 April 1671 |
Other legislation | |
Amends | Settlement on Duke of York Act 1663 |
Repealed by | Statute Law Revision Act 1863 |
Status: Repealed |
After the Restoration, James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor of Portsmouth and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.[39] Charles II also made his brother the Governor of the Royal Adventurers into Africa (later shortened to the Royal African Company) in October 1660, an office James retained until after the Glorious Revolution when he was forced to resign. When James commanded the Royal Navy during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) he immediately directed the fleet towards the capture of forts off the African coast that would facilitate English involvement in the slave trade (indeed English attacks on such forts occupied by the Dutch precipitated the war itself).[40] James remained Admiral of the Fleet during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), during which significant fighting also occurred off the African coast.[41] Following the raid on the Medway in 1667, James oversaw the survey and re-fortification of the southern coast.[42] The office of Lord High Admiral, combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs (positions granted him by Charles II upon his restoration), gave James enough money to keep a sizable court household.[43]
In 1664, Charles II granted American territory between the
In September 1666, Charles II put James in charge of firefighting operations during the Great Fire of London, in the absence of action by Lord Mayor Thomas Bloodworth. This was not a political office, but his actions and leadership were noteworthy. "The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire", wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September.[44]
In 1672, the Royal African Company received a new charter from Charles II. It set up forts and factories, maintained troops, and exercised martial law in West Africa in pursuit of trade in gold, silver and African slaves. In the 1680s, the RAC transported about 5,000 slaves a year to markets primarily in the English Caribbean across the Atlantic. Many were branded on the chest with the letters "DY" for "Duke of York", the RAC's Governor.[45] As historian William Pettigrew writes, the RAC "shipped more enslaved African women, men, and children to the Americas than any other single institution during the entire period of the transatlantic slave trade".[46]
Conversion to Roman Catholicism and second marriage
James's time in France had exposed him to the beliefs and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church, and both he and his wife Anne became drawn to that faith.[47][c] James took Catholic Eucharist in 1668 or 1669, although his conversion was kept secret for almost a decade as he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676.[49] In spite of his conversion, James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans, including John Churchill and George Legge, as well as French Protestants such as Louis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham.[50]
Growing fears of Roman Catholic influence at court led the English Parliament to introduce a new
King Charles II opposed James's conversion, ordering that James's daughters, Mary and Anne, be raised in the Church of England.
Exclusion Crisis
In 1677, King Charles II arranged for James's daughter Mary to marry the Protestant Prince
In England, the
On the orders of the King, James left England for
On 6 May 1682, James narrowly escaped the sinking of HMS Gloucester, in which between 130 and 250 people perished.[71] James argued with the pilot about the navigation of the ship before it ran aground on a sandbank, and then delayed abandoning ship, which may have contributed to the death toll.[72]
Return to favour
In 1683, a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles II and his brother and spark a
Reign
Accession to the throne
Charles II died on 6 February 1685 from apoplexy, after supposedly converting to Catholicism on his deathbed.[77] Having no legitimate children, he was succeeded by his brother James, who reigned in England and Ireland as James II and in Scotland as James VII. There was little initial opposition to James's accession, and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession.[78] He wished to proceed quickly to the coronation, and he and Mary were crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685.[79]
The new
Two rebellions
Soon after becoming king, James faced a rebellion in southern England led by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, and another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll.[83] Monmouth and Argyll both began their expeditions from Holland, where James's nephew and son-in-law, the Prince of Orange, had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts.[84]
Argyll sailed to Scotland where he raised recruits, mainly from his own clan, the Campbells.[85] The rebellion was quickly crushed, and Argyll was captured at Inchinnan on 18 June 1685.[85] Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard, he never posed a credible threat to James.[86] Argyll was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh. A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death. The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation.
Monmouth's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll's, but was more dangerous to James. Monmouth had proclaimed himself King at
Religious liberty and dispensing power
To protect himself from further rebellions, James sought safety by enlarging his
James advocated repeal of the penal laws in all three of his kingdoms, but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it.[e][96] James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685, declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he was not there in person to promote such a law. In response, the Parliament passed an Act that stated, "whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof, or should attend, either as preacher or as a hearer, a conventicle in the open air, should be punished with death and confiscation of property".[97] In March 1686, James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Roman Catholics but not for rebellious Presbyterian Covenanters.[98] Presbyterians would later call this period "The Killing Time".
James allowed Roman Catholics to occupy the highest offices of his kingdoms, and received at his court the
In 1687, James issued the Declaration of Indulgence, also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in which he used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing both Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters.[107] In the summer of 1687 he attempted to increase support for his tolerationist policy by a speaking tour of the western counties of England. As part of this tour, he gave a speech at Chester in which he said, "suppose... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned, it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different [religious] opinions as for being of different complexions."[108] At the same time, James provided partial toleration in Scotland, using his dispensing power to grant relief to Roman Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians.[109]
In 1688, James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church, further alienating the Anglican bishops against the Supreme Governor of their church.[110] While the Declaration elicited some thanks from its beneficiaries, it left the Established Church, the traditional ally of the monarchy, in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges.[110] James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education.[111] At the University of Oxford, he offended Anglicans by allowing Roman Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College, two of Oxford's largest colleges. He also attempted to force the Fellows of Magdalen College to elect as their President Anthony Farmer, a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be a Roman Catholic,[f] which was seen as a violation of the Fellows' right to elect someone of their own choosing.[111]
In 1687, James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters, so that it would repeal the Test Act and the Penal Laws. James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans. He instituted a wholesale purge of those in offices under the Crown opposed to his plan, appointing new
Deposition and the Glorious Revolution
In April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, subsequently ordering Anglican clergy to read it in their churches.
On 30 June 1688, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited William, Prince of Orange, to come to England with an army.[128] By September, it had become clear that William sought to invade.[129] Believing that his own army would be adequate, James refused the assistance of King Louis XIV of France, fearing that the English would oppose French intervention.[129] When William arrived on 5 November 1688, many Protestant officers, including Churchill, defected and joined William, as did James's own daughter Anne.[130] James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army, despite his army's numerical superiority.[131] On 11 December, James tried to flee to France, first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames.[132] He was captured in Kent; later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make James a martyr, William let him escape on 23 December.[132] James was received by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV, who offered him a palace and a pension.
William summoned a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle James's flight. It convened on 22 January 1689.[133] While the Parliament refused to depose him, they declared that James, having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, had effectively abdicated, and that the throne had thereby become vacant.[134][g] To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, who would be King. On 11 April 1689, the Parliament of Scotland declared James to have forfeited the throne of Scotland as well.[136] The Convention Parliament issued a Declaration of Right on 12 February that denounced James for abusing his power, and proclaimed many limitations on royal authority. The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the Crown, the establishment of a standing army, and the imposition of cruel punishments.[137] The Declaration was the basis for the Bill of Rights enacted later in 1689. The Bill also declared that henceforth, no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic.[138]
Attempt to regain the throne
War in Ireland
With the assistance of French troops, James landed in Ireland in March 1689.[139] The Irish Parliament did not follow the example of the English Parliament; it declared that James remained King and passed a massive bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him.[140] At James's urging, the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland.[141] James worked to build an army in Ireland, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 O.S. when William arrived, personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control.[142] James fled to France once more, departing from Kinsale, never to return to any of his former kingdoms.[142] Because he deserted his Irish supporters, James became known in Ireland as Séamus an Chaca or "James the shit".[143] Despite this popular perception, later historian Breandán Ó Buachalla argues that "Irish political poetry for most of the eighteenth century is essentially Jacobite poetry",[144] and both Ó Buachalla and fellow-historian Éamonn Ó Ciardha argue that James and his successors played a central role as messianic figures throughout the 18th century for all classes in Ireland.[145]
Return to exile, death and legacy
In France, James was allowed to live in the royal château of
During his last years, James lived as an austere
James died aged 67 of a
The rest of James's body was laid to rest in a triple
Later Hanover succession
James's younger daughter
Subsequent uprisings and pretenders
James's son
Charles's claims passed to his younger brother
Historiography
Historical analysis of James II has been somewhat revised since
Hilaire Belloc, a writer and Catholic apologist, broke with this tradition in 1928, casting James as an honourable man and a true advocate for freedom of conscience, and his enemies "men in the small clique of great fortunes ... which destroyed the ancient monarchy of the English".[166] However, he observed that James "concluded the Catholic church to be the sole authoritative voice on earth, and thenceforward ... he not only stood firm against surrender but on no single occasion contemplated the least compromise or by a word would modify the impression made."
By the 1960s and 1970s, Maurice Ashley and Stuart Prall began to reconsider James's motives in granting religious toleration, while still taking note of James's autocratic rule.[167][168] Modern historians have moved away from the school of thought that preached the continuous march of progress and democracy, Ashley contending that "history is, after all, the story of human beings and individuals, as well as of the classes and the masses."[169] He cast James II and William III as "men of ideals as well as human weaknesses".[169] John Miller, writing in 2000, accepted the claims of James's absolutism, but argued that "his main concern was to secure religious liberty and civil equality for Catholics. Any 'absolutist' methods ... were essentially means to that end."[170]
In 2004,
Tim Harris's conclusions from his 2006 book summarised the ambivalence of modern scholarship towards James II:
The jury will doubtless remain out on James for a long time ... Was he an egotistical bigot ... a tyrant who rode roughshod over the will of the vast majority of his subjects (at least in England and Scotland) ... simply naïve, or even perhaps plain stupid, unable to appreciate the realities of political power ... Or was he a well-intentioned and even enlightened ruler—an enlightened despot well ahead of his time, perhaps—who was merely trying to do what he thought was best for his subjects?[172]
In 2009, Steven Pincus confronted that scholarly ambivalence in 1688: The First Modern Revolution. Pincus claims that James's reign must be understood within a context of economic change and European politics, and makes two major assertions about James II. The first of these is that James purposefully "followed the French Sun King, Louis XIV, in trying to create a modern Catholic polity. This involved not only trying to Catholicize England ... but also creating a modern, centralizing, and extremely bureaucratic state apparatus."[173] The second is that James was undone in 1688 far less by Protestant reaction against Catholicization than by nationwide hostile reaction against his intrusive bureaucratic state and taxation apparatus, expressed in massive popular support for William of Orange's armed invasion of England. Pincus presents James as neither naïve nor stupid nor egotistical. Instead, readers are shown an intelligent, clear-thinking strategically motivated monarch whose vision for a French authoritarian political model and alliance clashed with, and lost out to, alternative views that favoured an entrepreneurial Dutch economic model, feared French power, and were outraged by James's authoritarianism.
Scott Sowerby countered Pincus's thesis in 2013 in Making Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution. He noted that English taxes remained low during James II's reign, at about 4% of the English national income, and thus it was unlikely that James could have built a bureaucratic state on the model of Louis XIV's France, where taxes were at least twice as high as a proportion of GDP.[174] Sowerby also contends that James's policies of religious toleration attracted substantial support from religious nonconformists, including Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists and Presbyterians, who were attracted by the king's push for a new "Magna Carta for liberty of conscience".[175] The king was overthrown, in Sowerby's view, largely because of fears among the Dutch and English elites that James might be aligning himself with Louis XIV in a supposed "holy league" to destroy Protestantism across northern Europe.[176] Sowerby presents James's reign as a struggle between those who believed that the king was sincerely devoted to liberty of conscience and those who were sceptical of the king's espousals of toleration and believed that he had a hidden agenda to overthrow English Protestantism.
Titles, styles, honours, and arms
Titles and styles
- 14 October 1633 – 6 February 1685: The Duke of York
- 10 May 1659 – 6 February 1685: The Earl of Ulster[13]
- 31 December 1660 – 6 February 1685: The Duke of Albany
- 6 February 1685 – 23 December 1688 (by Jacobites until 16 September 1701): His Majesty The King
The official style of James in England was "James the Second, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland,
James was created Duke of Normandy by King Louis XIV of France on 31 December 1660.[13]
In 1734 the Archbishop of Paris opened the cause for the canonisation of James as a saint, making him a Servant of God among Catholics.[177]
Honours
- KG: Knight of the Garter, 20 April 1642[13]
- Appointments
- Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, 1660–1669[178]
Arms
Prior to his accession, James's coat of arms was the
Family tree
In four generations of Stuarts, there were seven reigning monarchs (not including Hanover's George I). James II was the fourth Stuart monarch in England, the second of his generation and the father of two more.
Issue
Legitimate issue
Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
By Anne Hyde | |||
Charles, Duke of Cambridge | 22 October 1660 | 5 May 1661 | |
Mary II | 30 April 1662 | 28 December 1694 | married 1677, William III, Prince of Orange; no issue |
James, Duke of Cambridge | 11 or 12 July 1663 | 20 June 1667 | |
Anne, Queen of Great Britain | 6 February 1665 | 1 August 1714 | married 1683, Prince George of Denmark; no surviving issue |
Charles, Duke of Kendal | 4 July 1666 | 22 May 1667 | |
Edgar, Duke of Cambridge | 14 September 1667 | 8 June 1671 | |
Henrietta | 13 January 1669 | 15 November 1669 | |
Catherine | 9 February 1671 | 5 December 1671 | |
By Mary of Modena | |||
Unnamed child | March or May 1674 | stillbirth[180] | |
Catherine Laura | 10 January 1675 | 3 October 1675 | died of convulsions[180] |
Unnamed child | October 1675 | stillbirth[180] | |
Isabel (or Isabella) | 28 August 1676 | 2 or 4 March 1681 | buried in Westminster Abbey on 4 March (Old Style) as "The Lady Isabella, daughter to the Duke of York"[181] |
Charles, Duke of Cambridge
|
7 November 1677 | 12 December 1677 | died of smallpox[180] |
Elizabeth | c. 1678 | ||
Unnamed child | February 1681 | stillbirth[180] | |
Charlotte Maria | 16 August 1682 | 16 October 1682 | died of convulsions[180] and buried in Westminster Abbey on 8 October (Old Style) as "The Lady Charlotte-Marie, daughter to the Duke of York"[182] |
Unnamed child | October 1683 | stillbirth[180] | |
Unnamed child | May 1684 | stillbirth[183] | |
James, Prince of Wales "the Old Pretender" | 10 June 1688 | 1 January 1766 | married 1719, Clementina Sobieska; had issue |
Louisa Maria Teresa
|
28 June 1692 | 18 April 1712 | no issue |
Illegitimate issue
Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
By Arabella Churchill | |||
Henrietta FitzJames | 1667 | 3 April 1730 | Married, firstly, Henry Waldegrave; had issue. Married, secondly, Piers Butler, 3rd Viscount Galmoye; no issue. |
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick | 21 August 1670 | 12 June 1734 | Married, firstly, Lady Honora Burke (a/k/a Lady Honora de Burgh) and had issue. Married, secondly, Anne Bulkely and had issue.[184] |
Henry FitzJames, 1st Duke of Albemarle
|
August 1673 | December 1702 | Married Marie Gabrielle d'Audibert de Lussan; had issue. |
Arabella FitzJames | 1674 | 7 November 1704 | Became a nun under the name Ignatia.[184] |
By Catherine Sedley
| |||
Catherine Darnley | c. 1681 | 13 March 1743 | Alleged daughter. Married, firstly, James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey and had issue. Married, secondly, John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby and had issue.[184] |
James Darnley | 1684 | 22 April 1685 | |
Charles Darnley | Died young[184] |
Notes
- ^ New Style falls on a Saturday and the author insists that James died on Friday, "the day he ever desired to die on", so the author may have miscalculated the date, which later made it to various reference works.[3]
- ^ English Illustrated Magazine's article on St. Germain from September 1903 claimed that parts of his bowel interred at the parish church of St. Germain-en-Laye were rediscovered in 1824 and reburied.[155] Hilliam disputed that his remains were either scattered or lost, stating that when revolutionaries broke into the church, they were amazed at the body's preservation and it was put on public exhibition where miracles were said to have happened. Hilliam stated that the body was then kept "above ground" until George IV heard about it and ordered the body buried in the parish church of St Germain-en-Laye in 1824.[156]
- ^ Anne "made the greatest single impact upon his thinking" and that she converted shortly after the Restoration, "almost certainly before her husband".[48]
- ^ According to Turner, James's reaction to the agreement was "The King shall be obeyed, and I would be glad if all his subjects would learn of me to obey him".[60]
- Covenanters, as they did not recognize James (or any uncovenanted king) as a legitimate ruler, would not petition James for relief from the penal laws.
- ^ Historians are unclear on Farmer's exact religious affiliation. Macaulay wrote that Farmer "pretended to turn Papist".[112] Prall called him a "Catholic sympathizer".[113] Miller wrote that "although he had not declared himself a Catholic, it was believed he was no longer an Anglican".[114] Ashley did not refer to Farmer by name, but only as the King's Catholic nominee.[115] All these sources agreed that Farmer's bad reputation as a "person of scandalous character" was as much a deterrent to his nomination as his uncertain religious loyalties.[113]
- ^ Harris analyses the legal nature of the abdication; James did not agree that he had abdicated.[135]
References
- ^ a b c d Miller (2000), p. 240.
- ^ Somers, John. Tracts. Vol. XI 1809–1815. pp. 339–342.
- ^ Browning, Andrew, ed. (2001). English Historical Documents 1660–1714. Routledge. pp. 136–138.
- ^ a b "No. 2009". The London Gazette. 16 February 1684. p. 1.
- ^ Quinn, Stephen. "The Glorious Revolution". Economic History Association EH.net. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 6–7.
- ISBN 978-1-783-27044-6.
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 264–268.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 1.
- ^ a b Callow (2000), p. 31.
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 34.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 10; Callow (2000), p. 101
- ^ ISBN 0-7126-7448-9.
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 36.
- ^ a b Miller (2000), p. 3.
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 42.
- ^ White, Geoffrey H.; Lea, R.S. (eds.). "Duke of York". The Complete Peerage. Vol. XII. p. 914.
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 45.
- ^ Callow (2000), pp. 48–50.
- ^ Royle (2004), p. 517.
- ^ Miller 2000, p. 15.
- ^ a b Miller (2000), pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b The Complete Peerage, p. 915.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 19–20.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 19–25.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 22–23.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 24.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 25.
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 89.
- ^ Gibbs, Vicary (1910). Cokayne, George Edward (ed.). The Complete Peerage. Vol. I. p. 83.
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 90.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 44.
- ^ a b c d e Miller (2000), pp. 44–45.
- ^ Waller (2002), pp. 49–50.
- The Diary of Samuel Pepys.
- ^ a b c Miller (2000), p. 46.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 45–46.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 59.
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 101.
- , pp. 43–44
- ISBN 9780415190770.
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 104.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 42.
- ^ Spelling modernized for clarity; quoted by Adrian Tinniswood (2003). 80. By Permission of Heaven: The Story of the Great Fire of London. London: Jonathan Cape.
- ^ "The Royal African Company (RAC) is Founded". Archived from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-4696-1182-2.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 58–59; Callow (2000), pp. 144–145
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 144.
- ^ Callow (2000), pp. 143–144; Waller (2002), p. 135
- ^ Callow (2000), p. 149.
- ^ a b Miller (2000), pp. 69–71.
- ^ Kenyon (1986), p. 385.
- ^ Waller (2002), p. 92.
- ^ Waller (2002), pp. 16–17.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 73.
- ^ Turner (1948), pp. 110–111.
- ^ Waller (2002), pp. 30–31.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 99.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 84; Waller (2002), pp. 94–97
- ^ Turner (1948), p. 132.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 87.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 99–105.
- ^ Harris (2006), p. 74.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 93–95.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 103–104.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 90.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 87–91.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 95.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 98–99.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 89; Callow (2000), pp. 180–183
- ^ "Shipwreck The Gloucester hailed most important since Mary Rose". BBC News. 10 June 2022.
- ^ Thomas, Tobi (10 June 2022). "Wreck of Royal Navy warship sunk in 1682 identified off Norfolk coast". The Guardian.
- ^ a b c d Miller (2000), pp. 115–116.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 116; Waller (2002), pp. 142–143
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 116–117.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 117.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 118–119.
- ^ a b Miller (2000), pp. 120–121.
- ^ Harris (2006), p. 45.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 121.
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 44–45.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 123.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 140–143; Harris (2006), pp. 73–86
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 139–140.
- ^ a b Harris (2006), pp. 75–76.
- ^ Harris (2006), p. 76.
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 82–85.
- ^ a b c Miller (2000), p. 141.
- ^ a b Harris (2006), p. 88.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 141–142.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 142.
- ^ a b Miller (2000), pp. 142–143.
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 95–100.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 146–147.
- ^ Macaulay (1889), pp. 349–350.
- ^ Macaulay (1889), p. 242; Harris (2006), pp. 480–481
- ^ Macaulay (1889), p. 242; Harris (2006), p. 70
- ^ Macaulay (1889), pp. 385–386; Turner (1948), p. 373
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 142; Macaulay (1889), p. 445
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 195–196.
- ^ a b Miller (2000), pp. 150–152.
- ^ Macaulay (1889), p. 444.
- ^ Macaulay (1889), p. 368.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 156–157; Harris (2006), pp. 192–195
- ^ Macaulay (1889), pp. 368–369; Harris (2006), p. 192
- ISSN 0144-0365.
- ^ Kenyon (1986), pp. 389–391.
- ^ Sowerby (2013), p. 42.
- ^ Macaulay (1889), p. 429; Harris (2006), pp. 480–482
- ^ a b Harris (2006), pp. 216–224.
- ^ a b Harris (2006), pp. 224–229.
- ^ Macaulay (1889), p. 264.
- ^ a b Prall (1972), p. 148.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 170.
- ^ Ashley (1996), p. 89.
- ^ Jones (1988), p. 132.
- ^ Jones (1988), pp. 132–133.
- ^ Jones (1988), p. 146.
- ^ Sowerby (2013), pp. 136–143.
- ^ Jones (1988), p. 150.
- ^ Jones (1988), p. 159.
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 258–259.
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 260–262; Prall (1972), p. 312
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 186–187; Harris (2006), pp. 269–272
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 271–272; Ashley (1996), pp. 110–111
- ISBN 978-0-710-00400-0.
- ^ Waller (2002), pp. 43–46; Miller (2000), pp. 186–187
- ^ Ashley (1996), pp. 201–202.
- ^ a b Miller (2000), pp. 190–196.
- ^ Waller (2002), pp. 236–239.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 201–203.
- ^ a b Miller (2000), pp. 205–209.
- JSTOR 3020731.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 209.
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 320–328.
- ^ Devine (2006), p. 3; Harris (2006), pp. 402–407
- ^ Ashley (1996), pp. 206–209; Harris (2006), pp. 329–348
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 349–350.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 222–224.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 226–227.
- ^ Harris (2006), p. 440.
- ^ a b Harris (2006), pp. 446–449.
- ISBN 0-7190-3774-3.
- JSTOR 29735642.
- ^ Ó Buachalla (1996); Ó Ciardha (2002)
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 235.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 235–236.
- ^ "Burke's Peerage" (Second World War ed.). p. 228. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 238; Waller (2002), p. 350
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 239.
- ^ Miller (2000), pp. 234–236.
- ^ Macaulay (1889), p. 445.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. 240; Parish register of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, with transcription, at Association Frontenac-Amériques Archived 10 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine (in French)
- ^ Mann (2014), p. 223.
- ^ Hilliam (1998), p. 205.
- ^ Waller (2002), p. 401; MacLeod (1999), p. 349
- ^ a b Harris (2006), p. 493.
- ^ MacLeod (1999), p. 349.
- ^ MacLeod (1999), pp. 361–363.
- ^ MacLeod (1999), pp. 365–371.
- ^ MacLeod (1999), pp. 371–372.
- ^ MacLeod (1999), pp. 373–374.
- ^ Macaulay (1889), p. 239.
- ^ See Prall, vii–xv, for a more detailed historiography.
- ^ Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. .
- ISBN 978-0-8369-5922-2.
- ^ Ashley (1996), pp. 196–198.
- ^ Prall (1972), pp. 291–293.
- ^ a b Ashley (1996), p. 9.
- ^ Miller (2000), p. ix.
- ^ . Retrieved 15 October 2007.
He 'wished that all his subjects could be as convinced as he was that the Catholic church was the one true church. He was also convinced that the established church was maintained artificially by penal laws that proscribed nonconformity. If these were removed, and conversions to Catholicism were encouraged, then many would take place. In the event his optimism was misplaced, for few converted. James underestimated the appeal of Protestantism in general and the Church of England in particular. His was the zeal and even bigotry of a narrow-minded convert...'
- ^ Harris (2006), pp. 478–479.
- ISBN 978-0-3001-1547-5.
- ^ Sowerby (2013), pp. 51–53.
- ^ Sowerby (2013), pp. 43–44.
- ^ Sowerby (2013), pp. 227–239.
- ^ Coulombe, Charles (5 March 2019). "The forgotten canonisation Cause of King James II". Catholic Herald. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
- ^ "List of Lord Wardens". The Confederation of Cinque Ports. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
- ^ Velde, Francois R. "Marks of cadency in the British royal family". Heraldica.
- ^ a b c d e f g Weir, p. 260
- ^ Chester, J. L. (1876). The Marriage, Baptismal, and Burial Registers of the Collegiate Church or Abbey of St. Peter, Westminster. Vol. 10. Harleian Society. p. 201.
- ^ Chester (1876), p. 206.
- ^ Weir, 261
- ^ a b c d Weir, p. 263
Sources
- ISBN 0-340-00896-2.
- Callow, John (2000). The Making of King James II: The Formative Years of a King. Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-2398-9.
- ISBN 0-1410-2769-X.
- ISBN 0-7139-9759-1.
- Hilliam, David (1998). Kings, Queens, Bones & Bastards. Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-3553-7.
- Jones, J. R. (1988). The Revolution of 1688 in England. Orion Publishing Group, Limited. ISBN 0-2979-9467-0.
- ISBN 0-521-31327-9.
- MacLeod, John (1999). Dynasty, the Stuarts, 1560–1807. Sceptre. ISBN 0-3407-0767-4.
- Macaulay, Thomas Babington (1889). The History of England from the Accession of James the Second(Popular in two volumes ed.). Longmans.
- Mann, Alastair (2014). James VII: Duke and King of Scots, 1633–1701. John Donald. ISBN 978-1-907-90909-2.
- Miller, John (2000). James II (3rd ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08728-4.
- ISBN 0-903-75899-7
- ISBN 1-851-82534-7
- Prall, Stuart (1972). The Bloodless Revolution: England, 1688. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-10294-4.
- Royle, Trevor (2004). The British Civil Wars: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638–1660. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29293-7.
- Sowerby, Scott (2013). Making Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution. ISBN 978-0-674-07309-8.
- Turner, Francis C. (1948). James II. Creative Media Partners, LLC. ISBN 978-1-346-30578-3.
- Waller, Maureen (2002). Ungrateful Daughters: The Stuart Princesses who Stole Their Father's Crown. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-30711-X.
Further reading
- Ashley, Maurice (1978). James II. J.M. Dent & Sons. ISBN 978-0-4601-2021-0.
- DeKrey, Gary S. (2008). "Between Revolutions: Re-appraising the Restoration in Britain" History Compass 6 (3): 738–773.
- Earle, Peter (1972). The Life and Times of James II. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.[ISBN missing]
- Glassey, Lionel, ed. (1997). The Reigns of Charles II and James VII and II. [ISBN missing]
- Goodlad, Graham (2007). "Before the Glorious Revolution: The Making of Absolute Monarchy? Graham Goodlad Examines the Controversies Surrounding the Development of Royal Power under Charles II and James II" History Review 58: 10 ff.
- Johnson, Richard R. (1978). "Politics Redefined: An Assessment of Recent Writings on the Late Stuart Period of English History, 1660 to 1714." William and Mary Quarterly 35 (4): 691–732. doi:10.2307/1923211
- Miller, John (1997). The Glorious Revolution (2nd ed.). Longman. ISBN 0-5822-9222-0.
- Miller, John (2004). The Stuarts. ISBN 978-1-8528-5432-4.
- Mullett, M. (1993). James II and English Politics 1678–1688. ISBN 0-4150-9042-3.
- Ogg, David (1957). England in the Reigns of James II and William III, 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- ISBN 978-0-5822-8712-9.
- Van der Kiste, John (2021). James II and the first modern revolution. Barnsley: Pen & Sword. [ISBN missing]
- Walcott, Robert (1962). "The Later Stuarts (1660–1714): Significant Work of the Last Twenty Years (1939–1959)" American Historical Review 67 (2): 352–370 doi:10.2307/1843428
External links
- James VII & II at the official website of the British monarchy
- James II at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust
- James II at BBC History
- Portraits of King James II at the National Portrait Gallery, London