James VI and I
James VI and I | |||||
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Reign | 24 July 1567 – 27 March 1625 | ||||
Coronation | 29 July 1567 | ||||
Predecessor | Mary | ||||
Successor | Charles I | ||||
Regents | See list
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Born | 19 June 1566 Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh, Scotland | ||||
Died | 27 March 1625 (aged 58) (NS: 6 April 1625) Theobalds House, Hertfordshire, England | ||||
Burial | 7 May 1625 | ||||
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Issue more... |
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House | Stuart | ||||
Father | Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley | ||||
Mother | Mary, Queen of Scots | ||||
Signature |
James VI and I (James Charles Stuart; 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was
James was the son of
At 57 years and 246 days, James's reign in Scotland was the
Childhood
Birth
James was the only son of
James was born on 19 June 1566 at
Regencies
The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, "to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought"[17] in the security of Stirling Castle.[18] James was anointed King of Scotland at the age of thirteen months at the Church of the Holy Rude in Stirling, by Adam Bothwell, Bishop of Orkney, on 29 July 1567.[19] The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox. In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish ruling class, James was brought up as a member of the Protestant Church of Scotland, the Kirk. The Privy Council selected George Buchanan, Peter Young, Adam Erskine (lay abbot of Cambuskenneth), and David Erskine (lay abbot of Dryburgh) as James's preceptors or tutors.[20] As the young king's senior tutor, Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning.[21] Buchanan sought to turn James into a God-fearing, Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy, as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos.[22]
In 1568, Mary escaped from Lochleven Castle, leading to several years of sporadic violence. The Earl of Moray defeated Mary's troops at the
Morton was elected to Mar's office and proved in many ways the most effective of James's regents,[26] but he made enemies by his rapacity.[27] He fell from favour when Frenchman Esmé Stewart, Sieur d'Aubigny, first cousin of James's father Lord Darnley and future Earl of Lennox, arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the first of James's powerful favourites.[28] James was proclaimed an adult ruler in a ceremony of Entry to Edinburgh on 19 October 1579.[29] Morton was executed on 2 June 1581, belatedly charged with complicity in Darnley's murder.[30] On 8 August, James made Lennox the only duke in Scotland.[31] The king, then fifteen years old, remained under the influence of Lennox for about one more year.[32]
Rule in Scotland
Lennox was a
After James escaped from Falkland on 27 June 1583,
One last Scottish attempt against the king's person occurred in August 1600, when James was apparently assaulted by Alexander Ruthven, John Ruthven, Earl of Gowrie's younger brother, at Gowrie House, the seat of the Ruthvens.[39] Ruthven was run through by James's page John Ramsay, and the Earl of Gowrie was killed in the ensuing fracas; there were few surviving witnesses. Given James's history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal of money, his account of the circumstances was not universally believed.[40]
In 1586, James signed the Treaty of Berwick with England. That and his mother's execution in 1587, which he denounced as a "preposterous and strange procedure", helped clear the way for his succession south of the border.[d] Queen Elizabeth was unmarried and childless, and James was her most likely successor. Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of his policy.[42] During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588, he assured Elizabeth of his support as "your natural son and compatriot of your country".[43] Elizabeth sent James an annual subsidy from 1586 which gave her some leverage over affairs in Scotland.[44]
Marriage
Throughout his youth, James was praised for his chastity, since he showed little interest in women. After the loss of Lennox, he continued to prefer male company.
Witch hunts
James's visit to Denmark, a country familiar with
James became concerned with the threat posed by witches and wrote Daemonologie in 1597, a tract inspired by his personal involvement that opposed the practice of witchcraft and that provided background material for Shakespeare's Macbeth.[54][55] James personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches.[54] After 1599, his views became more sceptical.[56] In a later letter written in England to his son Henry, James congratulates the prince on "the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench. I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries ... most miracles now-a-days prove but illusions, and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations".[57]
Highlands and Islands
The forcible dissolution of the
In 1540,
It was against this background that James VI authorised the "
In the Northern Isles, James's cousin Patrick Stewart, Earl of Orkney, resisted the Statutes of Iona and was consequently imprisoned.[66] His natural son Robert led an unsuccessful rebellion against James, and the Earl and his son were hanged.[67] Their estates were forfeited, and the Orkney and Shetland islands were annexed to the Crown.[67]
Theory of monarchy
In 1597–98, James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift), in which he argues a theological basis for monarchy. In the True Law, he sets out the divine right of kings, explaining that kings are higher beings than other men for Biblical reasons, though "the highest bench is the sliddriest to sit upon".[68] The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy, by which a king may impose new laws by royal prerogative but must also pay heed to tradition and to God, who would "stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him, for punishment of wicked kings".[69]
Basilikon Doron was written as a book of instruction for the four-year-old Prince Henry and provides a more practical guide to kingship.
Literary patronage
In the 1580s and 1590s, James promoted the literature of his native country. He published his treatise
In furtherance of these aims, James was both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band, which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie among others, Montgomerie being a favourite of the king.[76] James was himself a poet, and was happy to be seen as a practising member of the group.[77]
By the late 1590s, James's championing of native Scottish tradition was reduced to some extent by the increasing likelihood of his succession to the English throne.
Accession in England
From 1601, in the last years of Elizabeth's life, certain English politicians—notably her chief minister Robert Cecil[f]—maintained a secret correspondence with James to prepare in advance for a smooth succession.[83] With the queen clearly dying, Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession to the English throne in March 1603. Elizabeth died in the early hours of 24 March, and James was proclaimed king in London later the same day.[84][85]
On 5 April, James left Edinburgh for London, promising to return every three years (a promise that he did not keep), and progressed slowly southwards. Local lords received him with lavish hospitality along the route and James was amazed by the wealth of his new land and subjects, claiming that he was "swapping a stony couch for a deep feather bed". James arrived in the capital on 7 May, nine days after Elizabeth's funeral.[84][86] His new subjects flocked to see him, relieved that the succession had triggered neither unrest nor invasion.[87] On arrival at London, he was mobbed by a crowd of spectators.[88]
The kingdom to which James succeeded, however, had its problems. Monopolies and taxation had engendered a widespread sense of grievance, and the costs of war in Ireland had become a heavy burden on the government,[91] which had debts of £400,000.
Early reign in England
James survived two conspiracies in the first year of his reign, despite the smoothness of the succession and the warmth of his welcome: the
In the early years of James's reign, the day-to-day running of the government was tightly managed by the shrewd Cecil, later
James was ambitious to build on the
James achieved more success in foreign policy. Never having been at war with Spain, he devoted his efforts to bringing the long
Gunpowder Plot
A dissident Catholic,
King and Parliament
The co-operation between monarch and Parliament following the Gunpowder Plot was atypical. Instead, it was the previous session of 1604 that shaped the attitudes of both sides for the rest of the reign, though the initial difficulties owed more to mutual incomprehension than conscious enmity.[105] On 7 July 1604, James had angrily prorogued Parliament after failing to win its support either for full union or financial subsidies. "I will not thank where I feel no thanks due", he had remarked in his closing speech. "... I am not of such a stock as to praise fools ... You see how many things you did not well ... I wish you would make use of your liberty with more modesty in time to come".[106]
As James's reign progressed, his government faced growing financial pressures, partly due to creeping inflation but also to the profligacy and financial incompetence of James's court. In February 1610, Salisbury proposed a scheme, known as the Great Contract, whereby Parliament, in return for ten royal concessions, would grant a lump sum of £600,000 to pay off the king's debts plus an annual grant of £200,000.[107] The ensuing prickly negotiations became so protracted that James eventually lost patience and dismissed Parliament on 31 December 1610. "Your greatest error", he told Salisbury, "hath been that ye ever expected to draw honey out of gall".[108] The same pattern was repeated with the so-called "Addled Parliament" of 1614, which James dissolved after a mere nine weeks when the Commons hesitated to grant him the money he required.[109] James then ruled without parliament until 1621, employing officials such as the merchant Lionel Cranfield, who were astute at raising and saving money for the crown, and sold baronetcies and other dignities, many created for the purpose, as an alternative source of income.[110]
Spanish match
Another potential source of income was the prospect of a Spanish dowry from a marriage between Charles, Prince of Wales, and Infanta Maria Anna of Spain.[111] The policy of the Spanish match, as it was called, was also attractive to James as a way to maintain peace with Spain and avoid the additional costs of a war.[112] Peace could be maintained as effectively by keeping the negotiations alive as by consummating the match—which may explain why James protracted the negotiations for almost a decade.[113]
The policy was supported by the Howards and other Catholic-leaning ministers and diplomats—together known as the Spanish Party—but deeply distrusted in Protestant England. When Walter Raleigh was released from imprisonment in 1616, he embarked on a hunt for gold in South America with strict instructions from James not to engage the Spanish.
In early 1623, Prince Charles, now 22, and Buckingham decided to seize the initiative and travel to Spain incognito, to win Infanta Maria Anna directly, but the mission proved an ineffectual mistake.
King and Church
After the Gunpowder Plot, James sanctioned harsh measures to control English Catholics. In May 1606, Parliament passed the
In the
In Scotland, James attempted to bring the Scottish Kirk "so neir as can be" to the English church and to reestablish
Personal relationships
Throughout his life James had close relationships with male courtiers, which has caused debate among historians about their exact nature.[142] In Scotland Anne Murray was known as the king's mistress.[143] After his accession in England, his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth,[142] as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth, nunc est regina Iacobus (Elizabeth was King, now James is Queen).[144]
Some of James's biographers conclude that Esmé Stewart, Duke of Lennox;
Some biographers of James argue that the relationships were not sexual.[149] James's Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes "ye are bound in conscience never to forgive", and James's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children, as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages.[150] Contemporary Huguenot poet Théophile de Viau observed that "it is well known that the king of England / fucks the Duke of Buckingham".[151][l] Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the king, writing to James many years later that he had pondered "whether you loved me now ... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog".[153] Buckingham's words may be interpreted as non-sexual, in the context of 17th-century court life,[154] and remain ambiguous despite their fondness.[155] It is also possible that James was bisexual.[156]
When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612, he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum.[m] Until Salisbury's death, the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency; from this time forward, however, James's government entered a period of decline and disrepute.[158] Salisbury's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State, with his young Scottish favourite Robert Carr carrying out many of Salisbury's former duties, but James's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism.[159]
The Howard party (consisting of Henry Howard, Earl of Northampton; Thomas Howard, Earl of Suffolk; Suffolk's son-in-law William Knollys, Lord Knollys; Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham; and Thomas Lake) soon took control of much of the government and its patronage. Even the powerful Carr fell into the Howard camp, hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers.[160] Carr had an adulterous affair with Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk. James assisted Frances by securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr, now Earl of Somerset.[n]
In summer 1615, however, it emerged that Overbury had been poisoned. He had died on 15 September 1613 in the Tower of London, where he had been placed at the king's request.[162][o] Among those convicted of the murder were the Earl and Countess of Somerset; the Earl had been replaced as the king's favourite in the meantime by Villiers. James pardoned the Countess and commuted the Earl's sentence of death, eventually pardoning him in 1624.[165] The implication of the king in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James's court with an image of corruption and depravity.[166] The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619.[167]
Health and death
In his later years, James suffered increasingly from
In early 1625, James was plagued by severe attacks of arthritis, gout, and fainting fits, and fell seriously ill in March with
James was buried in Westminster Abbey. The position of the tomb was lost for many years until his lead coffin was found in the Henry VII vault, during an excavation in the 19th century.[178]
Legacy
James was widely mourned. For all his flaws, he had largely retained the affection of his people, who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era. "As he lived in peace", remarked the Earl of Kellie, "so did he die in peace, and I pray God our king [Charles I] may follow him".[179] The Earl prayed in vain: once in power, King Charles I and the Duke of Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure.[180] James had often neglected the business of government for leisure pastimes, such as the hunt; his later dependence on favourites at a scandal-ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so carefully constructed by Elizabeth I.[181]
Under James, the
According to a tradition originating with anti-Stuart historians of the mid-17th-century, James's taste for political absolutism, his financial irresponsibility, and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundations of the English Civil War. James bequeathed his son Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings, combined with a disdain for Parliament, which culminated in the execution of Charles I and the abolition of the monarchy. Over the last three hundred years, the king's reputation has suffered from the acid description of him by Anthony Weldon, whom James had sacked and who wrote treatises on James in the 1650s.[184]
Other influential anti-James histories written during the 1650s include: Edward Peyton's Divine Catastrophe of the Kingly Family of the House of Stuarts (1652); Arthur Wilson's History of Great Britain, Being the Life and Reign of King James I (1658); and Francis Osborne's Historical Memoirs of the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James (1658).[185] David Harris Willson's 1956 biography continued much of this hostility.[95][186] In the words of historian Jenny Wormald, Willson's book was an "astonishing spectacle of a work whose every page proclaimed its author's increasing hatred for his subject".[187] Since Willson, however, the stability of James's government in Scotland and in the early part of his English reign, as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war, have earned him a re-evaluation from many historians, who have rescued his reputation from this tradition of criticism.[r]
Representative of the new historical perspective is the 2003 biography by Pauline Croft. Reviewer John Cramsie summarises her findings:
Croft's overall assessment of James is appropriately mixed. She recognises his good intentions in matters like Anglo-Scottish union, his openness to different points of view, and his agenda of a peaceful foreign policy within his kingdoms' financial means. His actions moderated frictions between his diverse peoples. Yet he also created new ones, particularly by supporting colonisation that polarised the crown's interest groups in Ireland, obtaining insufficient political benefit with his open-handed patronage, an unfortunate lack of attention to the image of monarchy (particularly after the image-obsessed regime of Elizabeth), pursuing a pro-Spanish foreign policy that fired religious prejudice and opened the door for Arminians within the English church, and enforcing unpalatable religious changes on the Scottish Kirk. Many of these criticisms are framed within a longer view of James' reigns, including the legacy—now understood to be more troubled—which he left Charles I.[189]
Titles, styles, honours, and arms
Titles and styles
In Scotland, James was "James the sixth, King of Scotland", until 1604. He was proclaimed "James the first, King of England, France, and Ireland,
Arms
As King of Scotland, James bore the ancient
The Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland under James was symbolised heraldically by combining their arms, supporters and badges. Contention as to how the arms should be marshalled, and to which kingdom should take precedence, was solved by having different arms for each country.[194]
The arms used in England were: Quarterly, I and IV, quarterly 1st and 4th Azure three fleurs de lys Or (for France), 2nd and 3rd Gules three lions
The arms used in Scotland were: Quarterly, I and IV Scotland, II England and France, III Ireland, with Scotland taking precedence over England. The supporters were: dexter a unicorn of Scotland imperially crowned, supporting a tilting lance flying a banner Azure a saltire Argent (
As
Coat of arms used from 1567 to 1603 | Coat of arms used from 1603 to 1625 outside Scotland | Coat of arms used from 1603 to 1625 in Scotland |
Issue
James's queen, Anne of Denmark, gave birth to seven children who survived beyond birth, of whom three reached adulthood:[196]
- Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales (19 February 1594 – 6 November 1612). Died, probably of typhoid fever, aged 18.[197]
- Frederick V, Elector Palatine. Died aged 65.
- Margaret (24 December 1598 – March 1600). Died aged 1.
- Charles I, King of England, Scotland and Ireland (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649). Married 1625 Henrietta Maria of France. Succeeded James I & VI.
- Robert, Duke of Kintyre (18 January 1602 – 27 May 1602). Died aged 4 months.[198]
- Mary (8 April 1605 – 16 December 1607). Died aged 2.
- Sophia (June 1606). Died within 48 hours of birth.[199]
Family tree
James's relationship to the houses of Stuart and Tudor[200] |
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Ancestry
Ancestors of James VI and I | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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List of writings
- The Essayes of a Prentise in the Divine Art of Poesie(also called Some Reulis and Cautelis), 1584
- His Majesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres, 1591
- Lepanto, poem
- Daemonologie, 1597
- Extra-titular Works from the Collected Demonology, 1616
- A Letter To The Whole Church Militant,
- The Argument Of This Whole Epistle,
- A Paraphrase Upon The Revelation,
- The Two Meditations
- The True Law of Free Monarchies, 1598
- Basilikon Doron, 1599
- A Counterblaste to Tobacco, 1604, a strong denunciation of tobacco
- An Apologie for the Oath of Allegiance, 1608
- A Premonition to All Most Mightie Monarches, 1609
Notes
- ^ As the Earl of Bedford was a Protestant, his place in the ceremony was taken by Jean, Countess of Argyll.[11]
- ^ Elizabeth I wrote to Mary: "My ears have been so astounded, my mind so disturbed and my heart so appalled at hearing the horrible report of the abominable murder of your late husband and my slaughtered cousin, that I can scarcely as yet summon the spirit to write about it ... I will not conceal from you that people for the most part are saying that you will look through your fingers at this deed instead of avenging it and that you don't care to take action against those who have done you this pleasure." Historian John Guy nonetheless concludes: "Not a single piece of uncontaminated evidence has ever been found to show that Mary had foreknowledge of Darnley's murder".[14] In historian David Harris Willson's view, however: "That Bothwell was the murderer no one can doubt; and that Mary was his accomplice seems equally certain."[15]
- ^ James's captors forced from him a proclamation, dated 30 August, declaring that he was not being held prisoner "forced or constrained, for fear or terror, or against his will", and that no one should come to his aid as a result of "seditious or contrary reports".[33]
- ^ James briefly broke off diplomatic relations with England over Mary's execution, but he wrote privately that Scotland "could never have been without factions if she had beene left alive".[41]
- ^ James heard on 7 October of the decision to postpone the crossing for winter.[47]
- ^ James described Cecil as "king there in effect".[82]
- ^ The introduction of Henry Howard (soon Earl of Northampton) and of Thomas Howard (soon Earl of Suffolk) marked the beginning of the rise of the Howard family to power in England, which culminated in their dominance of James's government after the death of Cecil in 1612. Henry Howard, son of poet Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, had been a diligent correspondent with James in advance of the succession (James referred to him as "long approved and trusted Howard"). His connection with James may have owed something to the attempt by his brother Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, to free and marry Mary, Queen of Scots, leading to his execution in 1572.[93] For details on the Howards, see The Trials of Frances Howard by David Lindley. Henry Howard is a traditionally reviled figure (Willson [1956] called him "A man of dark counsels and creeping schemes, learned but bombastic, and a most fulsome flatterer"[94]) whose reputation was upgraded by Linda Levy Peck's 1982 biography Northampton.[95]
- ^ English and Scot, James insisted, should "join and coalesce together in a sincere and perfect union, as two twins bred in one belly, to love one another as no more two but one estate".[97]
- ^ A crypto-Catholic was someone who outwardly conformed to Protestantism but remained a Catholic in private.
- Archbishop Spottiswood wrote to James warning him that sermons against bishops were being preached daily in Edinburgh.[139]
- ^ Assessments of the Kirk at James's death are divided. Some historians argue that the Scots might have accepted James's policies eventually, others that James left the Kirk in crisis.[141]
- ^ In the original: Et ce savant roy d'Angleterre / foutoit-il pas le Boukinquan.[152]
- ^ Northampton assumed the day-to-day running of government business, and spoke of "the death of the little man for which so many rejoice and few do as much as seem to be sorry."[157]
- ^ The commissioners judging the case reached a 5–5 verdict, so James quickly appointed two extra judges guaranteed to vote in favour, an intervention which aroused public censure. When Thomas Bilson (son of Bishop Bilson of Winchester, one of the added commissioners) was knighted after the annulment, he was given the nickname "Sir Nullity Bilson".[161]
- ^ It is very likely that Overbury was the victim of a 'set-up' contrived by the earls of Northampton and Suffolk, with Carr's complicity, to keep him out of the way during the annulment proceedings. Overbury knew too much of Carr's dealings with Frances and he opposed the match with a fervour that made him dangerous, motivated by a deep political hostility to the Howards. It cannot have been difficult to secure James's compliance, because he disliked Overbury and his influence over Carr.[163] John Chamberlain reported that the king "hath long had a desire to remove him from about the lord of Rochester, as thinking it a dishonour to him that the world should have an opinion that Rochester ruled him and Overbury ruled Rochester".[164]
- ^ Some historians (for example Willson) consider James, who was 58 in 1624, to have lapsed into premature senility;[171] but he suffered from an agonising species of arthritis which constantly left him indisposed, as well as other ailments; and Pauline Croft suggests that James regained some control over his affairs in summer 1624, afforded relief by the warm weather. She sees his continuing refusal to sanction war against Spain as a deliberate stand against the aggressive policies of Charles and Buckingham.[172]
- ^ A medicine recommended by Buckingham had only served to make the king worse, which led to rumours that the duke had poisoned him.[175]
- ^ In recent decades, much scholarship has emphasised James's success in Scotland (though there have been partial dissenters, such as Michael Lynch), and there is an emerging appreciation of James's successes in the early part of his reign in England.[188]
References
- ^ Milling 2004, p. 155.
- ^ Fischlin & Fortier 2002, p. 39
- political theory; and, of course, speeches to parliament ... He was the patron of Shakespeare, Jonson, Donne, and the translators of the "Authorized version" of the Bible, surely the greatest concentration of literary talent ever to enjoy royal sponsorship in England."
- ^ Cummings, Brian, ed. (2011). The Book of Common Prayer: The Texts of 1549, 1559, and 1662. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 737.
- ^ Smith 2003, p. 238: "The label 'the wisest fool in Christendom', often attributed to Henry IV of France but possibly coined by Anthony Weldon, catches James's paradoxical qualities very neatly"; Anthony Weldon (1651), The Court and Character of King James I, quoted by Stroud 1999, p. 27: "A very wise man was wont to say that he believed him the wisest fool in Christendom, meaning him wise in small things, but a fool in weighty affairs."
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 6: "Historians have returned to reconsidering James as a serious and intelligent ruler"; Lockyer 1998, pp. 4–6; Smith 2003, p. 238: "In contrast to earlier historians, recent research on his reign has tended to emphasize the wisdom and downplay the foolishness".
- ^ Davies 1959, pp. 47–57
- ^ Guy 2004, pp. 236–237, 241–242, 270; Willson 1963, p. 13.
- ^ Guy 2004, pp. 248–250; Willson 1963, p. 16.
- ^ Joseph Bain, Calendar State Papers Scotland, vol. 2 (Edinburgh, 1900), p. 290.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 17.
- ^ Donaldson 1974, p. 99.
- ^ Thomson 1827, pp. 171–172.
- ^ Guy 2004, pp. 312–313.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 18.
- ^ Guy 2004, pp. 364–365; Willson 1963, p. 19.
- ^ Letter of Mary to Mar, 29 March 1567, quoted by Stewart 2003, p. 27: "Suffer nor admit no noblemen of our realm or any others, of what condition soever they be of, to enter or come within our said Castle or to the presence of our said dearest son, with any more persons but two or three at the most."
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 33; Willson 1963, p. 18.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 11.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 19.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 13, 18.
- Spottiswoode, John (1851), History of the Church in Scotland, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, vol. 2, p. 120.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 13.
- ^ Thomson 1827, pp. 248–249.
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 45; Willson 1963, pp. 28–29.
- ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 15.
- ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 11–12; Stewart 2003, pp. 51–63.
- OL 25969471M.
- ^ David Calderwood quoted by Stewart 2003, p. 63: "So ended this nobleman, one of the chief instruments of the reformation; a defender of the same, and of the King in his minority, for the which he is now unthankfully dealt with."
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 63.
- ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 13–15; Willson 1963, p. 35.
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 66.
- ^ Law 1904, pp. 295, 297.
- ^ "Ruthven, William", by T. F. Henderson, in Dictionary of National Biography, Volume 50 (Smith, Elder, & Co., 1897)
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 17–18; Willson 1963, pp. 39, 50.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 20.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 29, 41–42; Willson 1963, pp. 121–124.
- ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 24–25; Stewart 2003, pp. 150–157.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 45; George Nicolson quoted by Stewart 2003, p. 154: "It is begun to be noted that the reports coming from the King should differ"; Williams 1970, p. 61: "The two principal characters were dead, the evidence of eyewitnesses was destroyed and only King James's version remained"; Willson 1963, pp. 126–130.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 22.
- ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 29–31; Willson 1963, p. 52.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 23.
- ^ Goodare, Julian (2000). "James VI's English Subsidy". In Goodare, Julian; Lynch, Michael (eds.). The Reign of James VI. East Linton: Tuckwell. p. 115.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 85.
- ^ Stewart 2003, pp. 107–110.
- ^ Kerr-Peterson, Miles; Pearce, Michael (2020). James VI's English Subsidy and Danish Dowry Accounts, 1588–1596. Scottish History Society Miscellany XVI. Woodbridge. p. 35.
- ^ Stevenson, David (1997). Scotland's Last Royal Wedding. Edinburgh: John Donald. pp. 99–100.
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 85–95.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 26.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 103.
- S2CID 229451135– via www.irss.uoguelph.ca.
- ^ a b Keay & Keay 1994, p. 556.
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 103–105.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 27; Lockyer 1998, p. 21; Willson 1963, pp. 105, 308–309.
- ^ Akrigg 1984, p. 220; Willson 1963, p. 309.
- ^ Hunter 2000, pp. 143, 166.
- ^ Hunter 2000, p. 174.
- ^ Thompson 1968, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Hunter 2000, p. 175.
- ^ Thompson 1968, pp. 40–41; Hunter 2000, p. 175
- ^ Hunter 2000, p. 175; Rotary Club of Stornoway 1995, pp. 12–13
- ^ Hunter 2000, p. 176.
- ^ MacKinnon 1991, p. 46.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 139; Lockyer 1998, p. 179
- ^ a b Willson 1963, p. 321.
- King Davidbecause they sit upon God His throne in earth and have the count of their administration to give unto Him."
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 131–133.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 133.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 134–135: "James wrote well, scattering engaging asides throughout the text"; Willson 1963, p. 132: "Basilikon Doron is the best prose James ever wrote".
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 133.
- ^ Quoted by Willson 1963, p. 132.
- ^ Jack 1988, pp. 126–127.
- ^ See: Jack, R. D. S. (2000), "Scottish Literature: 1603 and all that Archived 11 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine", Association for Scottish Literary Studies, retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ Jack, R. D. S. (1985), Alexander Montgomerie, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Jack 1988, p. 125.
- ^ Jack 1988, p. 137.
- ^ Spiller, Michael (1988), "Poetry after the Union 1603–1660", in Craig, Cairns (general editor), The History of Scottish Literature, Aberdeen University Press, vol. 1, pp. 141–152. Spiller points out that the trend, although unambiguous, was generally more mixed.
- ^ See for example Rhodes, Neil (2004), "Wrapped in the Strong Arm of the Union: Shakespeare and King James", in Maley, Willy; Murphy, Andrew (eds), Shakespeare and Scotland, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Jack 1988, pp. 137–138.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 48.
- ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 161–162; Willson 1963, pp. 154–155.
- ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 49.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 158.
- ^ Martin 2016, p. 315; Willson 1963, pp. 160–164.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 50.
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 169.
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 172; Willson 1963, p. 165.
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 173.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 50–51.
- ^ a b c d e Croft 2003, p. 51.
- ^ Guy 2004, pp. 461–468; Willson 1963, p. 156.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 156.
- ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 6.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 52–54.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 250.
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 249–253.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 67; Willson 1963, pp. 249–253.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 118.
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 219.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 64.
- required.)
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 63.
- ^ Quoted by Croft 2003, p. 62.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 75–81.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 80; Lockyer 1998, p. 167; Willson 1963, p. 267.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 93; Willson 1963, p. 348.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 409.
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 348, 357.
- ^ Schama 2001, p. 59.
- Kenyon, J. P.(1978). Stuart England. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. pp. 88–89.
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 369–370.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 104; Willson 1963, pp. 372–373.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 374–377.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 408–416.
- ^ Lockyer 1998, p. 148; Willson 1963, p. 417.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 421.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 422.
- ^ James quoted by Willson 1963, p. 423: "We cannot with patience endure our subjects to use such anti-monarchical words to us concerning their liberties, except they had subjoined that they were granted unto them by the grace and favour of our predecessors."
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 243.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 118–119; Willson 1963, pp. 431–435.
- ^ Cogswell 2005, pp. 224–225, 243, 281–299; Croft 2003, p. 120; Schama 2001, p. 64.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Krugler 2004, pp. 63–64: "The aging monarch was no match for the two men closest to him. By the end of the year, the prince and the royal favourite spoke openly against the Spanish marriage and pressured James to call a parliament to consider their now repugnant treaties ... with hindsight ... the prince's return from Madrid marked the end of the king's reign. The prince and the favourite encouraged popular anti-Spanish sentiments to commandeer control of foreign and domestic policy".
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 125; Lockyer 1998, p. 195.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 126: "On that divergence of interpretation, relations between the future king and the Parliaments of the years 1625–9 were to founder".
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 225.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 228.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 162.
- ^ Akrigg 1984, pp. 207–208; Willson 1963, pp. 148–149.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 201.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 156; Stewart 2003, p. 205: "In seeking conformity, James gave a name and a purpose to nonconformity"; Basilikon Doron quoted by Willson 1963, pp. 201, 209: "In things indifferent, they are seditious which obey not the magistrates".
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 158.
- ISBN 978-0-1951-3886-3.
- ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 157.
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 213–215.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 164.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 166; Lockyer 1998, pp. 185–186; Willson 1963, p. 320.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 167.
- ^ bisexual. In fact, the issue is murky."
- OL 46169615M
- ^ Hyde, H. Montgomery (1970). The Love That Dared Not Speak its Name. London: Heinemann. pp. 43–44.
- ISBN 978-0-8147-9693-1; Bergeron, David M. (1991), Royal Family, Royal Lovers: King James of England and Scotland, University of Missouri Press; Murphy, Timothy (2011), Reader's Guide To Gay & Lesbian Studies, Routledge Dearborn Publishers, p. 312.
- ^ Bergeron, David M. (1999). King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. p. 348.
- ^ Ruigh, Robert E. (1971). The Parliament of 1624: Politics and Foreign Policy. Harvard University Press. p. 77.
- ^ Graham, Fiona (5 June 2008). "To the manor bought". BBC News. Retrieved 18 October 2008.
- ISBN 978-0-2520-1686-8.
- ISBN 0-7126-7448-9.
- ^ Norton, Rictor (8 January 2000), "Queen James and His Courtiers", Gay History and Literature, retrieved 9 December 2015.
- ISBN 978-3-8780-8892-9, retrieved 9 December 2015.
- ^ Lockyer 1981, p. 22.
- ISBN 0-8223-1385-5.
- ISBN 1-8528-5432-4.
- ^ Dabiri, Emma. "Filled with 'a number of male lovelies': the surprising court of King James VI and I". BBC Scotland. BBC. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 269.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 333: "Finances fell into chaos, foreign affairs became more difficult. James exalted a worthless favourite and increased the power of the Howards. As government relaxed and honour cheapened, we enter a period of decline and weakness, of intrigue, scandal, confusion and treachery."
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 334–335.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 349; Francis Bacon, speaking at Carr's trial, quoted by Perry 2006, p. 105: "Packets were sent, sometimes opened by my lord, sometimes unbroken unto Overbury, who perused them, registered them, made table-talk of them, as they thought good. So I will undertake the time was, when Overbury knew more of the secrets of state, than the council-table did."
- ^ Lindley 1993, p. 120.
- ^ Barroll 2001, p. 136: "Rumours of foul play involving Rochester and his wife with Overbury had, however, been circulating since his death. Indeed, almost two years later, in September 1615, and as James was in the process of replacing Rochester with a new favourite, George Villiers, the Governor of the Tower of London sent a letter to the king informing him that one of the warders in the days before Overbury had been found dead had been bringing the prisoner poisoned food and medicine"; Lindley 1993, p. 146.
- ^ Lindley 1993, p. 145.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 342.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 91.
- ^ Davies 1959, p. 20: "Probably no single event, prior to the attempt to arrest the five members in 1642, did more to lessen the general reverence with which royalty was regarded in England than this unsavoury episode."
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 98–99; Willson 1963, p. 397.
- ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 101.
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 378, 404.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 379.
- ^ Willson 1963, p. 425.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 126–127; Croft 2003, p. 101: "James never became a cypher"; Lockyer 1998, p. 174: "During the last eighteen months of his life James fought a very effective rearguard action to preserve his control of foreign policy ... he never became a cypher."
- ISBN 0-5930-4148-8.
- ^ e.g. Dean, Geoffrey (2002), The Turnstone: A Doctor's Story., Liverpool University Press, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 127–128; Willson 1963, pp. 445–447.
- ^ John Chamberlain quoted in Croft 2003, p. 129 and Willson 1963, p. 447: "All was performed with great magnificence, but ... very confused and disorderly."
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 129–130; "Great Britains Salomon A sermon preached at the magnificent funerall, of the most high and mighty king, Iames, the late King of Great Britaine, France, and Ireland, defender of the faith, &c. At the Collegiat Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, the seuenth of May 1625. By the Right Honorable, and Right Reuerend Father in God, Iohn, Lord Bishop of Lincolne, Lord Keeper of the Great Seale of England, &c". quod.lib.umich.edu. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
- ^ Stanley, Arthur (1886), Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey, London: John Murray, pp. 499–526.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 130.
- Isle of Ré, leaving the Duke as the object of widespread ridicule."
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 129.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 146.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 67.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 3–4: "Often witty and perceptive but also prejudiced and abusive, their status as eye-witness accounts and their compulsive readability led too many historians to take them at face value"; Lockyer 1998, pp. 1–4.
- ^ For more on the influence of Commonwealth historians on the tradition of tracing Charles I's errors back to his father's reign, see Lindley 1993, p. 44.
- ^ Lockyer 1998, p. 4.
- ^ Wormald 2011.
- ^ Croft 2003, pp. 1–9, 46.
- ^ Cramsie, John (June 2003), "The Changing Reputations of Elizabeth I and James VI & I", Reviews and History: Covering books and digital resources across all fields of history (review no. 334)
- ^ Velde, Francois, Proclamation by the King, 24 March 1603, heraldica.org, retrieved 9 February 2013.
- ^ Velde, Francois, Proclamation by the King, 20 October 1604, heraldica.org, retrieved 9 February 2013.
- ^ Willson 1963, pp. 252–253.
- ISBN 0-9004-5525-X, pp. 159–160.
- ^ a b c Pinches and Pinches, pp. 168–169.
- ^ ISBN 0-7232-2096-4, pp. 213, 215.
- ^ Stewart 2003, pp. 140, 142.
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 248: "Latter day experts have suggested enteric fever, typhoid fever, or porphyria, but at the time poison was the most popular explanation ... John Chamberlain wrote that it was 'verily thought that the disease was no other than the ordinary ague that had reigned and raged all over England'."
- ^ Barroll 2001, p. 27; Willson 1963, p. 452.
- ^ Croft 2003, p. 55; Stewart 2003, p. 142; Willson 1963, p. 456.
- ^ Warnicke 2006, p. xvi–xvii
Sources
- Akrigg, G. P. V. (George Philip Vernon), ed. (1984), Letters of King James VI & I, Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California, ISBN 978-0-5200-4707-5
- Barroll, J. Leeds (2001), Anna of Denmark, Queen of England: A Cultural Biography, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, ISBN 978-0-8122-3574-6
- Bucholz, Robert; Key, Newton (2004), Early Modern England, 1485–1714: A Narrative History, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-6312-1393-2
- Cogswell, Thomas (2005) [1989], The Blessed Revolution: English Politics and the Coming of War 1621–24, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-5210-2313-9
- ISBN 978-0-3336-1395-5.
- ISBN 978-0-1982-1704-6
- ISBN 978-0-3401-2383-6
- Fischlin, Daniel; Fortier, Mark (2002), "'Enregistrate Speech': Stratagems of Monarchic Writing in the Work of James VI and I", in Fischlin, Daniel; Fortier, Mark (eds.), Royal Subjects: Essays on the Writings of James VI and I, Wayne State University Press, ISBN 978-0-8143-2877-4
- ISBN 978-1-8411-5752-8
- ISBN 978-1-8401-8376-4
- Jack, R. D. S. (Ronald) (1988), "Poetry under King James VI", in Craig, Cairns (ed.), The History of Scottish Literature, vol. 1, Aberdeen University Press
- Keay, John; Keay, Julia (1994), ISBN 978-0-0025-5082-6
- Krugler, John D. (2004), English and Catholic: The Lords Baltimore in the Seventeenth Century, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-7963-0
- Law, Thomas Graves (1904), "John Craig", in Brown, P. Hume (ed.), Collected Essays and Reviews of Thomas Graves Law, Edinburgh: T. & A. Constable, Edinburgh University Press
- Lindley, David (1993), The Trials of Frances Howard: Fact and Fiction at the Court of King James, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-4150-5206-1
- ISBN 978-0-5825-0296-3
- —— (1998), James VI and I, Longman, ISBN 978-0-5822-7961-2
- MacKinnon, Kenneth (1991), Gaelic – A Past and Future Prospect, Edinburgh: The Saltire Society, ISBN 978-0-8541-1047-6
- Martin, Patrick H. (2016), Elizabethan Espionage: Plotters and Spies in the Struggle Between Catholicism and the Crown, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, ISBN 978-1-4766-6255-8
- Milling, Jane (2004), "The Development of a Professional Theatre", in Milling, Jane; Thomson, Peter; Donohue, Joseph W. (eds.), The Cambridge History of British Theatre, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-5216-5040-3
- Perry, Curtis (2006), Literature and Favoritism in Early Modern England, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-5218-5405-4
- Rhodes, Neil; Richards, Jennifer; Marshall, Joseph (2003), King James VI and I: Selected Writings, Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-0482-2
- Rotary Club of Stornoway (1995), The Outer Hebrides Handbook and Guide, Machynlleth: Kittiwake, ISBN 978-0-9511-0035-6
- ISBN 978-0-7868-6752-3
- ISBN 978-0-6312-1874-6
- Stewart, Alan (2003), The Cradle King: A Life of James VI & I, London: Chatto and Windus, ISBN 978-0-7011-6984-8
- Stroud, Angus (1999), Stuart England, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-4152-0652-5
- Thompson, Francis (1968), Harris and Lewis, Outer Hebrides, Newton Abbot: David & Charles, ISBN 978-0-7153-4260-2
- Thomson, Thomas, ed. (1827), Sir James Melvill of Halhill; Memoirs of his own life, Bannatyne Club
- ISBN 978-0-4152-9182-8.
- Williams, Ethel Carleton (1970), Anne of Denmark, London: Longman, ISBN 978-0-5821-2783-8
- ISBN 978-0-2246-0572-4
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/14592 (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
Further reading
- Akrigg, G. P. V. (1978). Jacobean Pageant: The Court of King James I. New York: Atheneum. ISBN 0-6897-0003-2.
- ISBN 0-2977-6775-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4058-5916-5
- Durston, C. (1993). James I. Routledge. ISBN 0-4150-7779-6
- Fincham, Kenneth; Lake, Peter (1985). "The ecclesiastical policy of King James I" Journal of British Studies 24 (2): 169–207
- Gardiner, S. R. (1907). "Britain under James I" in The Cambridge Modern History vol. 3 ch. 17 online
- Goodare, Julian (2009). "The debts of James VI of Scotland" The Economic History Review 62 (4): 926–952
- Hirst, Derek (1986). Authority and Conflict – England 1603–1658 pp. 96–136, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-6740-5290-0
- Houston, S. J. (1974). James I. Longman. ISBN 0-5823-5208-8
- Lee, Maurice (1984). "James I and the Historians: Not a Bad King After All?" Albion 16 (2): 151–163. in JSTOR
- Montague, F. C. (1907). The History of England from the Accession of James 1st to the Restoration (1603–1660) online
- Peck, Linda Levy (1982). Northampton: Patronage and Policy at the Court of James I. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-0494-2177-8
- Schwarz, Marc L. (1974). "James I and the Historians: Toward a Reconsideration" Journal of British Studies 13 (2): 114–134 in JSTOR
- Smith, D. L. (1998). A History of the Modern British Isles – 1603–1707 – The Double Crown chs. 2, 3.1, and 3.2. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-6311-9402-6
- .
- Young, Michael B. (1999). King James VI and I and the History of Homosexuality. Springer.
- —— (2012). "James VI and I: Time for a Reconsideration?". Journal of British Studies. 51 (3): 540–567. S2CID 142991232.
External links
- James VI and I at the official website of the British monarchy
- James I at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust
- James I and VI at BBC History
- Portraits of King James I and VI at the National Portrait Gallery, London
- Works by James VI and I at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about James VI and I at Internet Archive
- Works by James VI and I at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Documents on James I curated by The National Archives (United Kingdom)