Ghaznavid Dynasty	(977–1186)
Ghurid Dynasty	(1170–1206)
Delhi Sultanate	(1206–1526)
– Mamluk Sultanate	(1206–1290)
– Khalji Sultanate	(1290–1320)
– Tughlaq Sultanate	(1320–1414)
– Sayyid Sultanate	(1414–1451)
– Lodi Sultanate	(1451–1526)
Ahom Kingdom	(1228–1826)
Chitradurga Kingdom	(1300–1779)
Reddy Kingdom	(1325–1448)
Vijayanagara Empire	(1336–1646)
Bengal Sultanate	(1352–1576)
Garhwal Kingdom	(1358–1803)
Mysore Kingdom	(1399–1947)
Gajapati Empire	(1434–1541)
Ladakh Kingdom	(1470–1842)
Deccan Sultanates	(1490–1596)
– Ahmadnagar Sultanate	(1490–1636)
– Berar Sultanate	(1490–1574)
– Bidar Sultanate	(1492–1619)
– Bijapur Sultanate	(1492–1686)
– Golkonda Sultanate	(1518–1687)
Keladi Kingdom	(1499–1763)
Koch Kingdom	(1515–1947)

The Janapadas (lit. 'Foothold of the people') (pronounced

Iron Age: from about 1500 BCE to the 6th century BCE. With the rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas ("great janapadas"), most of the states were annexed by more powerful neighbours, although some remained independent.^[1]

Etymology

The

PIE

*pédom "fetters" (i.e. "what is attached to the feet"). Sanskrit padám, usually taken to mean "footprint, trail", diverges in accent from the PIE reconstruction. For the sense of "population of the land", padasya janas, the inverted padajana would be expected. A primary meaning of "place of the people", janasya padam, would not explain why the compound is of masculine gender. An original dvandva "land and people" is conceivable, but a dual inflection would be expected.^[4]

History and evolution

shrauta ritual originating from the Kuru Kingdom,^[5]

around 1000 BCE.

Literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. The earliest mention of the term "janapada" occurs in the Aitareya (8.14.4) and Shatapatha (13.4.2.17) Brahmana texts.^[6]

In the

jana denotes a tribe, whose members believed in a shared ancestry.^[7] The janas were headed by a king (raja). The council (samiti) was a common assembly of the jana members, and had the power to elect or dethrone the king. The sabha was a smaller assembly of wise elders, who advised the king.^[8]

The janas were originally semi-nomadic pastoral communities, but gradually came to be associated with specific territories as they became less mobile. Various kulas (clans) developed within the jana, each with its own chief. Gradually, the necessities of defence and warfare prompted the janas to form military groupings headed by janapadins (Kshatriya warriors). This model ultimately evolved into the establishment of political units known as the janapadas.^[9]

While some of the janas evolved into their own janapadas, others appear to have mixed together to form a common Janapada. According to the political scientist Sudama Misra, the name of the

Panchala janapada suggests that it was a fusion of five (pancha) janas.^[10] Some janas (such as Aja and Mutiba) mentioned in the earliest texts do not find a mention in the later texts. Misra theorizes that these smaller janas were conquered by and assimilated into the larger janas.^[10]

Janapadas were gradually dissolved around 500 BCE. Their disestablishment can be attributed to the rise of imperial powers (such as

Greeks) in the north-western South Asia.^[11]

Nature

The Janapada were highest political unit in Northern India during this period; these polities were usually monarchical (though some followed a form of republicanism) and succession was hereditary. The head of a kingdom was called a (

rajan) or king. A chief priest (purohita) and a commander of the army (senani) who would assist the king. There were also two other political bodies: the (sabhā), thought to be a council of elders and the (samiti), a general assembly of the entire people.^[12]

The boundaries of the kingdoms

Often rivers formed the boundaries of two neighboring kingdoms, as was the case between the northern and southern

Sahyadri

also formed their boundaries.

The cities and villages

Panchala. The remains of this city has been discovered in Bareilly

Some kingdoms possessed a main city that served as its capital. For example, the capital of Pandava's Kingdom was

Ahichatra was the capital of Northern Panchala whereas Kampilya was the capital of Southern Panchala. Kosala Kingdom had its capital at Ayodhya. Apart from the main city or capital, where the palace of the ruling king was situated, there were small towns and villages spread throughout the kingdom, from which tax was collected by officers appointed by the king. What the king offered in return was protection from attack by other kings and robber tribes, as well as from invading foreign nomadic tribes. The king also enforced law and order in his kingdom by punishing the guilty.^[13]^[14]

Administration

The Janapadas had Kshatriya rulers.^[16] Based on literary references, historians have theorized that the Janapadas were administered by the following assemblies in addition to the king:

Sabha (Council): An assembly more akin to a council of qualified members or elders (mostly men) who advised the king and performed judicial functions. In the ganas or republican Janapadas called Gana-Rajya with no kings, the council of elders also handled administration.^[1]

Paura Sabha (Executive Council): The Paura Sabha was the assembly of the capital city (pura), and handled municipal administration.^[17]

Samiti (General Assembly): A samiti generally consisted of all adults of the republic or the city-state. A samiti was congregated when a matter of importance had to be communicated to the entire city-state. A samiti was also held at the time of festivals to plan, raise revenue and conduct the celebrations.

Janapada: The Janapada assembly represented the rest of the Janapada, possibly the villages, which were administered by a Gramini.^[17]

Some historians have also theorized that there was a common assembly called the "Paura-Janapada", but others such as Ram Sharan Sharma disagree with this theory. The existence of Paura and Janapada itself is a controversial matter.^[18]

Indian nationalist historians such as

A. S. Altekar, this theory is based on a misunderstanding of the text: the term "Paura" in the relevant portion of the Dharmasutra refers to a resident of the city, not a member of the city assembly.^[21] Jayaswal also argued that the members of the supposed Paura-Janapada assembly acted as counselors to the king, and made other important decisions such as imposing taxes in times of emergency. Once again, Altekar argued that these conclusions are based on misinterpretations of the literary evidence. For example, Jayaswal has wrongly translated the word "amantra" in a Ramayana verse as "to offer advice"; it actually means "to bid farewell" in proper context.^[21]

Interactions between kingdoms

Janapada weaponry

Ancient Indian Antennae sword; Metalwork, 1800–1500 BCE ^[22]

Ancient Indian Ax Blade, 1800–1500 BCE^[23]

There was no border security for a kingdom and border disputes were very rare. One king might conduct a military campaign (often designated as Digvijaya meaning victory over all the directions) and defeat another king in a battle, lasting for a day.^[24] The defeated king would acknowledge the supremacy of the victorious king. The defeated king might sometimes be asked to give a tribute to the victorious king. Such tribute would be collected only once, not on a periodic basis. The defeated king, in most cases, would be free to rule his own kingdom, without maintaining any contact with the victorious king. There was no annexation of one kingdom by another. Often a military general (senapati) conducted these campaigns on behalf of his king. A military campaign and tribute collection was often associated with a great sacrifice (like Rajasuya or Ashvamedha) conducted in the kingdom of the campaigning king. The defeated king also was invited to attend these sacrifice ceremonies, as a friend and ally.^[25]

New kingdoms

New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one king in a generation. The

Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India.^[26]

Cultural differences

Parts of western India were dominated by tribes who had a slightly different culture, considered non-Vedic by the mainstream

Cina

, often grouped with Mleccha kingdoms.

List of Janapadas

Vedic literature

The Vedas mention five sub-divisions of ancient India:^[28]

Udichya (Northern region)
Prachya (Eastern region)
Dakshina (Southern region)
Pratichya (Western region)
Madhya-desha (Central region)

The Vedic literature mentions the following janas or janapadas:^[29]

Jana or Janapada	IAST name	Region	Mentioned in Rigveda	Mentioned in Atharvaveda
Aja	Aja	Central	✓
Alina	Alina	Western	✓
Ambashtha	Ambaśṭha	Central
Andhra	Āndhra	Southern
Anga	Aṅga	Eastern		✓
Anu	Anu	Western	✓
Balhika	Balhika	Northern		✓
Bhalana	Bhalana	Western	✓
Bharadvaja	Bharadvāja	Central	✓
Bharata	Bharata	Central	✓
Bheda	Bheda	Central	✓
Bodha	Bodha	Central
Chedi	Cedi	Central	✓
Druhyu	Druhyu	Western	✓
Gandhari	Gandhāri	Western	✓	✓
Kamboja	Kamboja	Northern
Keshin	Keśin	Central
Kikata	Kīkaṭa	Eastern	✓	✓
Kirata	Kirāta	Eastern
Kosala	Kosala	Eastern
Krivi	Krivi	Central	✓
Kunti	Kunti	Central
Kalinga	Kalinga	Eastern	✓	✓
Kuru	Kuru	Central	✓	✓
Magadha	Magadha	Eastern		✓
Mahavrisha	Mahāvṛṣa	Northern		✓
Matsya	Matsya	Central	✓
Mujavana	Mūjavana	Northern	✓	✓
Mutiba	Mūtiba	Southern
Nishada	Niṣāda	Central
Paktha	Paktha	Western	✓
Panchala	Pāñcala	Central
Parshu	Parśu	Western	✓
Paravata	Pārāvata	Central	✓
Prithu	Pṛthu	Western	✓
Pulinda	Pulinda	Southern
Pundra	Puṇḍra	Eastern
Puru	Pūru	Western	✓
Rushama	Ruśama	Central	✓
Shalva	Śālva	Central
Satvanta	Satvanta	Southern
Shabara	Śabara	Southern
Shigru	Śigru	Central	✓
Shiva	Śiva	Western	✓
Shvikna	Śvikna	Central
Srinjaya	Sṛñjaya	Central	✓	✓
Tritsu	Tṛtsu	Central	✓
Turvasha	Turvaśa	Western	✓
Ushinara	Uśīnara	Central	✓
Uttara Kuru	Uttara Kuru	Northern
Uttara Madra	Uttara Madra	Northern
Vaikarna	Vaikarṇa	Northern	✓
Vanga	Vaṅga	Eastern
Kashi	Kāśi	Eastern
Varashikha	Varaśikha	Central	✓
Vasha	Vaśa	Central
Vidarbha	Vidarbha	Southern		✓
Videha	Videha	Eastern
Vishanin	Viśaṇin	Western	✓
Vrichivanta	Vṛcivanta	Western	✓
Yadu	Yadu	Western	✓
Yakshu	Yakṣu	Central	✓

Puranic literature

The Puranas mention seven sub-divisions of ancient India:^[30]

Udichya (Northern region)
Prachya (Eastern region)
Dakshinapatha (Southern region)
Aparanta (Western region)
Madhya-desha (Central region)
Parvata-shrayin (Himalayan region)
Vindhya-prashtha (
Vindhyan region
)

According to research by political scientist Sudama Misra, the Puranic texts mention the following janapadas:^[31]

Janapada	Region	Mentioned in the Puranas?					Alternative names and locations
Janapada	Region	Matsya (Chapter 114)	Vayu (Chapter 45)	Markandeya (Chapter 57)	Vamana (Chapter 13)	Brahmanda (Chapter 16)	Alternative names and locations
Ābhīra (northern)	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Ābhīra (southern)	Southern		✓	✓	✓	✓
Abhīṣaha (Abhishaha)	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Apanga (Vayu), Aupadha (Markandeya), Alasa (Vamana)
Āhuka	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Kuhaka (Markandeya), Kuhuka (Vamana)
Alimadra	Northern		✓	✓	✓		Anibhadra (Markandeya), Alibhadra (Vamana)
Ānarta	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Āvantya Markandeya, Vamana
Andhaka	Central	✓
Āndhra	Southern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Andha (Markandeya)
Andhravāka	Eastern		✓	✓		✓	Andhāraka (Markandeya)
Aṅga	Eastern	✓			✓	✓	Central and Eastern in Vamana
Aṅgāramāriṣa (Angara-Marisha)	Southern					✓
Āntaranarmada	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Uttaranarmada (Markandeya), Sunarmada (Vamana)
Antargiri	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Anūpa	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Arūpa (Matsya), Annaja (Vayu)
Aparīta	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Purandhra (Matsya), Aparānta (Markandeya)
Arthapa	Central		✓	✓			Atharva (Markandeya)
Aśmaka (Ashmaka)	Southern		✓	✓	✓	✓
Aśvakūṭa	Central			✓
Āṭavi	Southern	✓	✓	✓		✓	Āraṇya (Markandeya), Āṭavya (Brahmanda)
Ātreya	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Atri (Matsya, Brahmanda)
Auṇḍra	Vindhyan	✓
Avanti	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Central and Vindhyan in Matsya
Bahirgiri	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Vāhlīka	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Bahula	Northern		✓	✓	✓		Pahlava (Vayu), Bahudha (Vamana)
Barbara	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Central and Northern in Vamana
Bhadra	Eastern and Central					✓
Bhadrakāra	Central	✓	✓			✓
Bharadvāja	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Bhārgava	Eastern		✓	✓	✓	✓
Bharukaccha	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Bhanukaccha (Vayu), Bhīrukahcha (Markandeya), Dārukachchha (Vamana), Sahakaccha (Brahmanda)
Bhogavardhana	Southern		✓	✓	✓	✓
Bhoja	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Gopta (Vamana)
Bhūṣika (Bhushika)	Northern					✓
Bodha	Central	✓	✓			✓	Bāhya (Matsya)
Brahmottara	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Suhmottara (Matsya), Samantara (Brahmanda)
Carmakhaṇḍika (Charmakhandika)	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Attakhaṇḍika (Matsya), Sakheṭaka (Vamana)
Kerala	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kevala (Markandeya)
Cīna (China)	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Pīna (Vayu), Veṇa (Vamana)
Cola (Chola)	Southern	✓	✓		✓	✓	Caulya (Vayu), Cauḍa (Vamana); Southern and Eastern in Brahmanda
Cūlika (Chulika)	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Cūḍika (Vamana), Vindhyacūlika (Brahmanda)
Daṇḍaka	Southern	✓	✓	✓		✓
Darada	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓
Darva	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓		✓	Himalayan and Northern in Vayu and Markandeya
Daśeraka (Dasheraka)	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Karseruka (Vayu), Kuśeruka (Markandeya)
Daśamālika (Dashamalika)	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Daśanāmaka (Matsya), Daśamānika (Vayu), Daṅśana (Vamana)
Daśarṇa (Dasharna)	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Druhyu	Northern	✓	✓			✓	Hrada (Vayu), Bhadra (Brahmanda)
Durga	Western		✓	✓	✓	✓	Durgala (Brahmanda)
Ganaka	Northern				✓
Gāndhāra	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Godha	Central					✓
Golāṅgūla	Southern			✓
Gonarda	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Govinda (Vayu), Gomanta (Markandeya), Mananda (Vamana)
Haṃsamārga	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Sarvaga (Himalayan) in Matsya; Haṃsamārga (Northern and Himalayan) in Vayu and Markandeya; Karnamārga (Northern) and Haṃsamārga (Himalayan) in Vamana; Haṃsamārga (Himalayan) Haṃsabhaṅga (Northern) in Brahmanda
Hara-Hunaka	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Pūrṇa (Vayu), Ūrṇa (Markandeya), Cūrṇa (Vamana), Hūṇa (Brahmanda)
Hāramuṣika (Haramushika)	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓		Hāramūrtika (Matsya), Hārapūrika (Vayu), Sāmuṣaka (Vamana)
Huhuka	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Samudgaka (Matsya), Sahūdaka (Vayu), Sakṛtraka (Markandeya), Śahuhūka (Vamana), Sahuhūka (Brahmanda)
Ijika	Northern					✓
Īṣīka (Ishika)	Southern	✓	✓	✓		✓	Vaisakya (Markandeya)
Jaguda	Northern	✓	✓	✓			Jāṇgala (Matsya), Juhuḍa (Vayu), Jāguḍa (Markandeya)
Jāṇgala	Central	✓	✓			✓
Jñeyamarthaka	Eastern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Jñeyamallaka (Markandeya), Aṅgiyamarṣaka (Vamana), Gopapārthiva (Brahmanda)
Kachchhika	Western	✓	✓	✓		✓	Kāchchhīka (Matsya), Kacchīya (Vayu), Kāśmīra (Markandeya), Kacchipa (Brahmanda)
Kālatoyaka	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Kaliṅga (central)	Central	✓		✓	✓	✓	Arkalinga (Markandeya)
Kaliṅga (southern)	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Kalitaka	Western		✓	✓	✓	✓	Kālītaka (Vayu), Anīkaṭa (Markandeya), Tālīkaṭa (Vamana), Kuntala (Brahmanda)
Kalivana	Western		✓	✓	✓	✓	Kolavana (Vayu), Kālivala (Markandeya), Vāridhana (Vamana), Kalivana (Brahmanda)
Kāmboja	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓
Kantakara	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓		Kanṭakāra (Matsya), Raddhakaṭaka (Vayu), Bahubhadra (Markandeya), Kādhara (Vamana)
Kāraskara	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Paraṣkara (Vayu), Kaṭhākṣara (Markandeya), Karandhara (Brahmanda)
Kārūṣa (Karusha)	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Southern and Vindhyan (Matsya)
Kāśmīra (Kashmira)	Northern		✓	✓		✓
Kauśika	Central				✓
Kekeya	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kaikeyya (Matsya), Kaikeya (Markandeya), Kaikeya (Vamana)
Khasa	Himalayan		✓	✓	✓	✓	Khaśa (Vamana), Śaka (Brahmanda)
Kirāta	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kirāta (Matsya, Central and Himalayan)
Kisaṇṇa	Central		✓
Kiṣkindhaka (Kishkindhaka)	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kikarava (Vamana)
Koṅkaṇa	Southern					✓
Kośala (Central)	Central	✓	✓	✓		✓
Kośala (Vindhyan)	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Kukkuṭa	Northern				✓
Kulūta	Northern				✓	✓	Ulūta (Brahmanda)
Kulya	Southern and Central	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Only Central in Markandeya; only Southern in Vamana and Brahmanda
Kumara	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kupatha (Matsya), Kumana (Vayu), Kusuma (Markandeya), Kumārāda (Vamana), Kṣapaṇa (Brahmanda)
Kuninda	Northern	✓	✓	✓		✓	Pulinda (Matsya), Kaliṅga (Markandeya), Kalinda (Brahmanda)
Kuntala	Southern and Central	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kuntala ( (Matsya, only Central), Kuṇḍala (Vamana)
Kupatha	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kṣupaṇa (Vayu), Kurava (Markandeya)
Kuru	Central	✓	✓		✓	✓	Kaurava (Vamana)
Kuśalya (Kushalya)	Central					✓
Kuśūdra (Kushudra)	Central				✓
Kuthaprāvaraṇa	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kuśaprāvaraṇa (Vayu), Kuntaprāvaraṇa (Markandeya), Apaprāvaraṇa (Brahmanda)
Lalhitta	Northern				✓
Lampāka	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Lamaka (Brahmanda)
Madraka	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Bhadraka (Vayu and Vamana), Maṇḍala (Brahmanda)
Madguraka	Eastern	✓		✓	✓	✓	Mudgara (Markandeya), Mudagaraka (Brahmanda)
Mādreya	Central					✓
Magadha	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Central and Eastern in Vayu and Brahmanda
Maharāṣṭra (Maharashtra)	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Navarāṣṭra (Matsya)
Māheya	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Māhiṣika (Mahishika)	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Māhiṣaka (Vayu and Markandeya)
Mālada	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Mālava (Matsya), Manada (Markandeya), Mansāda (Vamana)
Malaka	Central			✓
Malavartika	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Mallavarṇaka (Matsya), Mālavartin (Vayu), Mānavartika (Markandeya), Baladantika (Vamana)
Mālava	Vindhyan	✓	✓		✓	✓	Ekalavya (Vamana), Malada (Brahmanda)
Malla	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Śālva (Matsya), Māla (Vayu), Māia (Vamana)
Maṇḍala	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓		✓	Mālava (Vayu), Mālava (Markandeya)
Māṇḍavya	Northern				✓
Māṣa (Masha)	Vindhyan	✓
Mātaṅga	Eastern	✓
Matsya	Central	✓		✓	✓	✓	Yatstha (Vamana)
Maulika	Southern		✓	✓		✓	Maunika (Vayu)
Mekala	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Rokala (Vayu), Kevala (Markandeya)
Arbuda	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Mūka	Central	✓
Mūṣika (Mushika)	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Sūtika (Matsya), Mūṣikāda (Vamana), Mūṣika (Brahmanda)
Nairṇika	Southern		✓	✓	✓		Naiṣika (Markandeya)
Nalakālika	Southern		✓	✓	✓		Vanadāraka (Markandeya), Nalakāraka (Vamana)
Nāsikya	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Vāsikya (Matsya), Nāsikānta (Vamana), Nāsika (Brahmanda)
Nirāhāra	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Nigarhara (Vayu), Nihāra (Markandeya)
Naiṣadha (Naishadha)	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Niṣāda (Vayu)
Pahlava	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Pallava (all except Vayu)
Pāṇavīya	Northern				✓
Pāñcala (Panchala)	Central	✓	✓		✓	✓
Pāṇḍya (Pandya)	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Puṇḍra (Markandeya), Puṇḍra (Vamana)
Pārada	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Parita (Vayu), Pāravata (Vamana)
Paṭaccara (Patachchara)	Central	✓	✓			✓	Śatapatheśvara (Vayu)
Paurika	Southern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Paunika (Vayu), Paurika (Markandeya), Paurika (Vamana), Paurika (Brahmanda)
Pluṣṭa (Plushta)	Himalayan				✓
Prāgjyotiṣa (Pragjyotisha)	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Prasthala	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Puṣkala (Markandeya)
Pravaṅga	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Plavaṅga (Matsya and Brahmanda)
Prāvijaya	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Prāviṣeya (Brahmanda)
Priyalaukika	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Harṣavardhana (Markandeya), Aṅgalaukika (Vamana), Aṅgalaukika (Brahmanda)
Puleya	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Kulīya (Matsya), Pulinda (Markandeya), Pulīya (Vamana), Pauleya (Brahmanda)
Pulinda	Southern	✓	✓	✓		✓
Puṇḍra	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Muṇḍa (Vayu), Madra (Markandeya), Pṛsadhra (Vamana)
Rākṣasa (Rakshasa)	Southern				✓
Rāmaṭha	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓		Māṭhara (Markandeya), Māṭharodha (Vamana)
Rūpasa	Western	✓	✓	✓		✓	Kūpasa (Vayu), Rūpapa (Markandeya), Rūpaka (Brahmanda)
Sainika	Northern	✓	✓	✓		✓	Pidika (Vayu), Śūlika (Markandeya), Jhillika (Brahmanda)
Śālva (Shalva)	Central	✓	✓			✓
Saraja	Vindhyan			✓
Sārasvata	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Sārika	Southern				✓
Surāṣṭra (Surashtra)	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Saurāṣṭra (Matsya)
Sauśalya (Saushalya)	Central					✓
Sauvīra	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Setuka	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Śailūṣa (Markandeya), Jānuka (Vamana)
Śabara (Shabara)	Southern	✓	✓	✓		✓	Bara (Vayu), Śarava (Brahmanda)
Śaka (Shaka)	Northern	✓	✓		✓	✓	Central in Vamana
Śaśikhādrika (Shashikhadraka)	Himalayan				✓
Śatadruja (Shatadruja)	Northern			✓	✓		Śatadrava (Vamana)
Ṣaṭpura	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Padgama (Matsya), Ṣaṭsura (Vayu), Paṭava (Markandeya), Bahela (Vamana)
Śulakara (Shulakara)	Northern			✓
Śūrpāraka	Western		✓	✓	✓	✓	Sūrpāraka (Vayu), Sūryāraka (Markandeya), Sūryāraka (Brahmanda)
Sindhu	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Sirāla	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Surāla (Vayu), Sumīna (Markandeya), Sinīla (Vamana), Kirāta (Brahmanda)
Śudra (Shudra)	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Suhya (Brahmanda)
Sujaraka	Eastern		✓
Supārśva (Suparshva)	Northern				✓
Śūrasena (Shurasena)	Central	✓	✓			✓
Taittrika	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Taittirika (Matsya), Turasita (Vayu), Kurumini (Markandeya), Tubhamina (Vamana), Karīti (Brahmanda)
Talagana	Northern	✓	✓		✓	✓	Talagāna (Matsya), Stanapa (Vayu), Tāvakarāma (Vamana), Tālaśāla (Brahmanda)
Tāmasa	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Chamara (Matsya), Tomara (Vamana), Tāmara (Brahmanda)
Tāmas	Western				✓
Tāmralipataka	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Taṅgaṇa	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Apatha (Matsya), Gurguṇa (Markandeya)
Taṅgaṇa	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Tuṅgana (Markandeya)
Tāpasa	Western	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Svāpada (Markandeya), Tāpaka (Brahmanda)
Tilaṇga	Central		✓
Tomara	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Tāmasa (Markandeya and Vamana)
Tośala (Toshala)	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Traipura	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Trigarta	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Tumbara	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Tumbura (Vayu), Tumbula (Markandeya), Barbara (Brahmanda)
Tumura	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Tumbura (Markandeya), Turaga (Vamana), Tuhuṇḍa (Brahmanda)
Tuṇḍikera	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Śauṇḍikera (Matsya), Tuṣṭikāra (Markandeya)
Tūrṇapāda	Northern				✓
Tuṣāra (Tushara)	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Tukhāra (Markandeya)
Udbhida	Southern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Ulida (Vamana), Kulinda (Brahmanda)
Urṇa	Himalayan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Huṇa (Vayu)
Utkala	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Eastern and Central in Brahmanda
Uttamārṇa	Vindhyan		✓	✓	✓	✓	Uttama (Brahmanda)
Vāhyatodara	Northern		✓	✓	✓	✓	Girigahvara (Brahmanda)
Vanavāsika	Southern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Vājivasika (Matsya), Banavāsika (Vayu), Namavāsika (Markandeya), Mahāśaka (Vamana)
Vaṅga	Eastern	✓			✓	✓	Central and Eastern in Vamana
Vāṅgeya	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Mārgavageya (Matsya), Rāṅgeya (Markandeya), Vojñeya (Brahmanda)
Kāśi (Kashi)	Central	✓	✓	✓		✓
Vāṭadhāna	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Vatsa	Central		✓
Vātsīya	Western				✓
Vaidarbha	Southern	✓	✓	✓		✓
Videha	Eastern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Vaidiśa (Vaidisha)	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Vaidika (Vayu), Kholliśa (Vamana)
Vindhyamūlika	Southern	✓	✓	✓		✓	Vindhyapuṣika (Matsya), Vindhyaśaileya (Markandeya), Vindhyamaulīya (Brahmanda)
Vītihotra	Vindhyan	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Vīrahotra (Markandeya), Vītahotra (Vamana)
Vṛka	Central		✓	✓	✓
Yamaka	Eastern	✓
Yavana	Northern	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	Gavala (Markandeya)

Sanskrit epics

The Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata mentions around 230 janapadas, while the Ramayana mentions only a few of these. Unlike the Puranas, the Mahabharata does not specify any geographical divisions of ancient India, but does support the classification of certain janapadas as southern or northern.^[32]

Buddhist canon

The Buddhist canonical texts -

mahajanapadas ("great janapadas"):^[33]

Anga

Assaka

Avanti

Chetiya

Gandhara

Kamboja

Kashi

Kosala

Kuru

Machchha

Magadha

Malla

Panchala

Surasena

Vajji (Bajji or Vṛji)

Vamsha (Vatsa)

Jain text

The Jain text
Bhagavati Sutra also mentions 16 important janapadas, but many names differ from the ones mentioned in the Buddhist texts.^[33]

Accha

Anga

Avaha

Bajji (Vajji or Vrijji)

Banga (Vanga)

Kasi (Kashi)

Kochcha

Kosala

Ladha (Lata)

Magadha

Malavaka

Malaya

Moli (Malla)

Padha

Sambhuttara

Vaccha (Vatsa)

See also

Rigvedic tribes

Bharata Khanda

History of India

Mahajanapadas

Middle kingdoms of India

Monarchy in ancient India

Indo-Aryan peoples

List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Misra 1973, p. 18.

Ginn & Co.
, ... jána, m. creature; man; person; in plural, and collectively in singular, folks; a people or race or tribe ... cf. γένος, Lat. genus, Eng. kin, 'race' ...

ISBN 9780800862480
, ... *gen-, found in Skt. jana, 'a man', and Gk. genos and L. genus, 'a race' ...

^ Dunkel, George (2002). "Vedic janapada and Ionic andrapodon; with notes on Vedic drupadam and IE pedom "place" and "fetter"". Indo-European Perspectives (ed. M. R. V. Southern) (Monograph). Journal of Indo-European Studies.

^ Witzel 1995.

^ Misra 1973, p. 15.

^ Misra 1973, pp. 7–11.

^ Misra 1973, p. 12.

^ Misra 1973, p. 13.

^ ^a ^b Misra 1973, p. 14.

^ Misra 1973, pp. 15–16.

ISBN 978-81-206-0124-6
.

ISBN 978-81-208-2085-2
.

^ Sudāmā Miśra (1973). Janapada state in ancient India. Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana.

^ Śrīrāma Goyala (1994). The Coinage of Ancient India. Kusumanjali Prakashan.

^ Misra 1973, p. 17.

^ ^a ^b Misra 1973, p. 19.

^
ISBN 9788120808270
.

ISBN 9788190246965
.

^ Misra 1973, p. 20.

^
ISBN 9788120810099
.

^ Feb 22, Rohan Dua / TNN / Updated. "India's largest known burial site is 3,800 yrs old, confirms carbon dating | India News - Times of India". The Times of India.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

^ Feb 22, Rohan Dua / TNN / Updated. "India's largest known burial site is 3,800 yrs old, confirms carbon dating | India News - Times of India". The Times of India.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

^ The Geographical knowledge. 1971.

^ Knipe 2015, p. 234-5.

^ Asim Kumar Chatterji (1980). Political History of Pre-Buddhist India. Indian Publicity Society.

^ Millard Fuller. "(अंगिका) Language : The Voice of Anga Desh". Angika.

^ Misra 1973, p. 24.

^ Misra 1973, p. 304-305.

^ Misra 1973, p. 45.

^ Misra 1973, p. 306-321.

^ Misra 1973, p. 99.

^ ^a ^b Misra 1973, p. 2.

Bibliography

ISBN 9780199397709
.

Misra, Sudama (1973). Janapada state in ancient India. Vārāṇasī: Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 18 July 2016.

Witzel, Michael (1995), "Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state" (PDF), EJVS, 1 (4), archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2007

Links to related articles

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Tribes and kingdoms mentioned in the Mahabharata

Abhira

Andhra

Anarta

Anga

Anupa

Assaka

Asmaka

Avanti

Ay

Bahlika

Bhārata

Chedi

Chera

Chola

Chinas

Dakshina Kosala

Dakshinatya

Danda

Dasarna

Dasharna

Dasherka

Dwaraka

Gandhāra

Garga

Gomanta

Gopa Rashtra

Hara Huna

Heheya

Himalaya

Huna

Kanchi

Kasmira

Kalakuta

Kalinga

Kamboja

Karnata

Karusha

Kashi

Kekeya

Kerala

Khasa

Kikata

Kimpurusha

Kinnara

Kirata
Kingdom

Kishkindha

Konkana

Kosala

Kuninda

Kunti

Kuru

Lanka

Madra

Madraka

Magadha

Maha Chinas

Mahisha

Malla

Malava

Manipura

Matsya

Mekhalas

Mleccha

Mudgala

Mushika

Nasikya

Nepa

Niharas

Nishadas

Odra

Pallava

Panchala

Pandya

Parada

Parama Kamboja

Parasika

Parvartaka

Parvata

Paurava

Pishacha

Pragjyotisha

Pratyagratha

Prasthala

Pundra

Pulinda

Saka

Salva

Salveya

Salwa

Saraswata

Saurashtra

Sauvira

Shakya

Sindhu

Sinhala

Sivi

Sonita

Sudra

Suhma

Surparaka

Surasena

Tamraparni

Tangana

Trigarta

Tulu

Tushara

Ursa

Uttara Kuru

Uttara Madra

Utkala

Vanga

Vatadhana

Vatsa

Videha

Vidarbha

Yavana

Yaudheya

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Prehistoric

Madrasian culture

Soanian, c. 500,000 BCE

Neolithic, c. 7600 – c. 1000 BCE
Bhirrana 7570 – 6200 BCE

Jhusi 7106 BCE

Lahuradewa 7000 BCE

Mehrgarh 7000 – 2600 BCE

South Indian Neolithic 3000 – 1000 BCE

Ancient

Indus Valley civilization
, c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE

Post Indus Valley Period
(Cemetery H Culture), c. 1700 – c. 1500 BCE

Vedic civilization
, c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE
Kuru Kingdom, c. 1200 - c. 500 BCE

Early Vedic Period

Rise of Śramaṇa movement

Later Vedic Period

Spread of Jainism – Parshvanatha

Spread of Jainism – Mahavira

Rise of Buddhism

Kingdom of Magadha
Haryanka Dynasty
c. 544 – c. 413 BCE

Shaishunaga Dynasty
c. 413 – c. 345 BCE

Nanda Dynasty, c. 345 – c. 322 BCE

Mahajanapadas, c. 500 – c. 345 BCE

Classical

Kingdom of Magadha
Maurya Dynasty
, c. 322 – c. 185 BCE

Shunga Dynasty, c. 185 – c. 75 BCE

Kanva Dynasty, c. 75 – c. 30 BCE

Sangam period

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Satavahana Dynasty, c. 30 BCE – c. 220 CE

Gupta Dynasty, c. 200 – c. 550 CE

Early medieval

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Outline

Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)
Madrasian culture
Soanian culture

Edakkal culture
(5000–3000 BC)

Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)
Anarta tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC)
Ahar-Banas culture (3000–1500 BC)
Pandu culture (1600–1500 BC)
Malwa culture (1600–1300 BC)
Jorwe culture (1400–700 BC)

Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)
Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BC)
– Early Harappan culture (3300–2600 BC)
– Mature Harappan culture (2600–1900 BC)
– Late Harappan culture (1900–1300 BC)
Vedic Civilisation (2000–500 BC)
– Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000–1600 BC)
– Swat culture (1600–500 BC)

Macedonian Empire
(330–323 BC)
Maurya Empire (321–184 BC)
Seleucid India (312–303 BC)
Sangam period (c. 600 BC – c. 300 AD)
Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1345)
Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC – AD 1102)
Chola Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1279)
Pallava Empire (c. 250 AD – AD 800)
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500)
Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224)

Hoysala Empire
(1040–1347)
Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434)
Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323)
Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766)
Kalachuris of Tripuri (675-1210)
Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184)
Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673)
Deva Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 1300)

Late medieval period (1206–1526)
Ghaznavid Dynasty (977–1186)
Ghurid Dynasty (1170–1206)
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
– Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)
– Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)
– Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)
– Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)
– Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526)
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779)
Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448)
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803)
Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947)
Gajapati Empire (1434–1541)
Ladakh Kingdom (1470–1842)
Deccan Sultanates (1490–1596)
– Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1490–1636)
– Berar Sultanate (1490–1574)
– Bidar Sultanate (1492–1619)
– Bijapur Sultanate (1492–1686)
– Golkonda Sultanate (1518–1687)
Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763)
Koch Kingdom (1515–1947)

Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799) Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947) Sikh Empire
(1799–1849)

Colonial states (1510–1961)
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