Japanese Zen
Japanese Zen | |
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Hanyu Pinyin | Chán |
Yue: Cantonese | |
Jyutping | Sim4 |
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Revised Romanization | Seon |
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Romanization | Zen |
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Zen Buddhism |
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- See also Zen for an overview of Zen, Chan Buddhism for the Chinese origins, and Sōtō, Rinzai and Ōbaku for the three main schools of Zen in Japan
Japanese Zen refers to the Japanese forms of
History
Origins
According to tradition, Zen originated in
The term Zen is derived from the
Early Japanese Zen
Zen was first introduced into Japan as early as 653-656 C.E. in the
The first attempt of establishing Zen as an independent doctrine was in 815, when the Chinese monk
Kamakura (1185–1333 C.E.)
Zen found difficulties in establishing itself as a separate school in Japan until the 12th century, largely because of opposition, influence, power and criticism by the Tendai school. During the Kamakura period (1185–1333 C.E.), Nōnin established the first independent Zen school on Japanese soil, known as the short-lived and disapproved Daruma school.[8][7] In 1189 Nōnin[9] sent two students to China, to meet with Cho-an Te-kuang (1121–1203 C.E.), and ask for the recognition of Nōnin as a Zen-master. This recognition was granted.[10]
In 1168 C.E., Eisai traveled to China, whereafter he studied Tendai for twenty years.[11] In 1187 C.E. he went to China again, and returned to establish a local branch of the Linji school, which is known in Japan as the Rinzai school.[12] Decades later, Nampo Jōmyō (南浦紹明) (1235–1308 C.E.) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Ōtōkan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai.
In 1215 C.E., Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.[12]
Zen fit the way of life of the samurai: confronting death without fear, and acting in a spontaneous and intuitive way.[12]
During this period the Five Mountain System was established, which institutionalized an influential part of the Rinzai school. It consisted of the five most famous Zen temples of Kamakura: Kenchō-ji, Engaku-ji, Jufuku-ji, Jōmyō-ji and Jōchi-ji.[13]
Muromachi (or Ashikaga) (1336–1573 C.E.)
During the
Gozan-system
In the beginning of the Muromachi period the Gozan system was fully worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura. A second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to the central government, which administered this system.[14] The monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by the shōgun for the governing of state affairs.[15]
Gozan system | ||
Kyoto | Kamakura | |
---|---|---|
First Rank | Tenryū-ji | Kenchō-ji |
Second Rank | Shōkoku-ji | Engaku-ji |
Third Rank | Kennin-ji | Jufuku-ji |
Fourth Rank | Tōfuku-ji | Jōchi-ji |
Fifth Rank | Manju-ji | Jōmyō-ji
|
Rinka-monasteries
Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under such strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were primarily located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence.[16] The O-to-kan lineage, that centered on Daitoku-ji, also had a greater degree of freedom. It was founded by Nampo Jomyo, Shuho Myocho, and Kanzan Egen.[17] A well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji was Ikkyū.[12]
Another Rinka lineage was the Hotto lineage, of which Bassui Tokushō is the best-known teacher.[18]
Azuchi-Momoyama (1573–1600 C.E.) and Edo (or Tokugawa) (1600–1868 C.E.)
After a period of war Japan was re-united in the Azuchi–Momoyama period. This decreased the power of Buddhism, which had become a strong political and military force in Japan. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at the expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world. The only traders to be allowed were Dutchmen admitted to the island of Dejima.[12] New doctrines and methods were not to be introduced, nor were new temples and schools. The only exception was the Ōbaku lineage, which was introduced in the 17th century during the Edo period by Ingen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of the Ming dynasty to the Manchu people, his teachings were seen as a separate school. The Ōbaku school was named after Mount Huangbo (黄檗山, Ōbaku-sān), which had been Ingen's home in China.
Well-known Zen masters from this period are Bankei, Bashō and Hakuin.[12] Bankei Yōtaku (盤珪永琢?, 1622–1693 C.E.) became a classic example of a man driven by the "great doubt". Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉?, 1644 – November 28, 1694) became a great Zen poet. In the 18th century Hakuin Ekaku (白隠 慧鶴?, 1686–1768) revived the Rinzai school. His influence was so immense that almost all contemporary Rinzai lineages are traced back to him.
Meiji Restoration (1868–1912 C.E.) and Imperial expansionism (1912–1945 C.E.)
The
Buddhist institutions had a simple choice: adapt or perish. Rinzai and Soto Zen chose to adapt, trying to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity. This Japanese identity was being articulated in the Nihonjinron philosophy, the "Japanese uniqueness" theory. A broad range of subjects was taken as typical of Japanese culture. D.T. Suzuki contributed to the Nihonjinron-philosophy by taking Zen as the distinctive token of Asian spirituality, showing its unique character in the Japanese culture[21]
This resulted in support for the war activities of the Japanese imperial system by the Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers. According to Sharf,
They became willing accomplices in the promulgation of the kokutai (national polity) ideology—the attempt to render Japan a culturally homogeneous and spiritually evolved nation politically unified under the divine rule of the emperor.[21]
War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during the Pacific War were supported by the Zen establishment.[20][22]
A notable work on this subject was
Criticisms of post-WWII Zen
Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Harada Daiun Sogaku and Shunryū Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attained realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest's function has largely been reduced to officiating at funerals, a practice sardonically referred to in Japan as sōshiki bukkyō (葬式仏教, funeral Buddhism).[citation needed] For example, the Sōtō school published statistics stating that 80 percent of laity visited temples only for reasons having to do with funerals and death.[23]
Teachings
Buddha-nature and sunyata
Mahayana Buddhism teaches śūnyatā, "emptiness", which is also emphasized by Zen. But another important doctrine is the buddha-nature, the idea that all human beings have the possibility to awaken. All living creatures are supposed to have the Buddha-nature, but don't realize this as long as they are not awakened. The doctrine of an essential nature can easily lead to the idea that there is an unchanging essential nature or reality behind the changing world of appearances.[24]
The difference and reconciliation of these two doctrines is the central theme of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.[24]
Kensho: seeing one's true nature
The primary goal of Rinzai Zen is kensho, seeing one's true nature, and mujodo no taigen, expression of this insight in daily life.[25]
Seeing one's true nature means seeing that there is no essential 'I' or 'self', that our true nature is
Expression in daily life means that this is not only a contemplative insight, but that our lives are expressions of this selfless existence.[web 3]
Zen meditation
Zen emphasizes zazen, meditation c.q. dhyana in a sitting position. In Soto, the emphasis is on shikantaza, 'just sitting', while Rinzai also uses koans to train the mind. In alternation with zazen, there is walking meditation, kinhin, in which one walks with full attention.
To facilitate insight, a Zen teacher can assign a
A monk asked: "Does a dog have buddha-nature?" Joshu responded: "Mu
Zen-meditation aims at "non-thinking," in Japanese fu shiryō and hi shiryō. According to Zhu, the two terms negate two different cognitive functions both called
Traditional Schools
The traditional institutional traditions (shū) of Zen in
Sōtō Zen
The
Rinzai Zen
The
Ōbaku Zen
The Ōbaku school was introduced from China by the Ingen in 1654. Often termed the third sect of Zen Buddhism in Japan, it had a strong influence on Japanese Rinzai, which partly adopted Ōbaku-practices, and partly reinstored older practices in response to the Ōbaku-school.
Lay Organizations
There are modern Zen organizations in Japan which have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.
Sanbo Kyodan
The
FAS Society
The FAS Society is a non-sectarian organization, founded by Shin'ichi Hisamatsu. Its aim is to modernize Zen and adapt it to the modern world. In Europe it is influential through such teachers as Jeff Shore and Ton Lathouwers.
Zen in the Western world
Early influences
Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of
D.T. Suzuki
The single most influential person for the spread of Zen Buddhism was D. T. Suzuki.[19][21] A lay student of Zen, he became acquainted with Western culture at a young age. He wrote many books on Zen which became widely read in the Western world, but he has been criticised for giving a one-sided and overly romanticized vision of Zen.[19][21][35]
Reginald Horace Blyth (1898–1964) was an Englishman who went to Japan in 1940 to further his study of Zen. He was interned during World War II and started writing in prison. While imprisoned he met Robert Aitken, who was later to become a roshi in the Sanbo Kyodan lineage. Blyth was tutor to the Crown Prince after the war. His greatest work is the 5-volume "Zen and Zen Classics", published in the 1960s. Here he discusses Zen themes from a philosophical standpoint, often in conjunction with Christian elements in a comparative spirit. His essays include "God, Buddha, and Buddhahood" and "Zen, Sin, and Death".
Beat Zen
The British
The Dharma Bums, a novel written by Jack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into the bohemian lifestyles of a small group of American youths, primarily on the West Coast. Beside the narrator, the main character in this novel was "Japhy Ryder", a thinly veiled depiction of Gary Snyder. The story was based on actual events taking place while Snyder prepared, in California, for the formal Zen studies that he would pursue in Japanese monasteries between 1956 and 1968.[36]
Christian Zen
Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle (1898–1990) was a Jesuit who became a missionary in Japan in 1929. In 1956 he started to study Zen with Harada Daiun Sogaku. He was the superior of Heinrich Dumoulin, the well-known author on the history of Zen. Enomiya-lassalle introduced Westerners to Zen meditation.
In 1989, the Vatican released a document which states some Catholic appreciation of the use of Zen in Christian prayer. According to the text none of the methods proposed by non-Christian religions should be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian:
On the contrary, one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian concept of prayer, its logic and requirements are never obscured.[web 5]
Zen and the art of...
While
A number of contemporary authors have explored the relationship between Zen and a number of other disciplines, including parenting, teaching, and leadership. This typically involves the use of Zen stories to explain leadership strategies.[40]
Art
In Europe, the
Western Zen lineages derived from Japan
Over the last fifty years mainstream forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia and their successors, have begun to take root in the West.
United States
Sanbo Kyodan
In North America, the Zen lineages derived from the
The most widespread are the lineages founded by
Soto
Soto has gained prominence via
The Katagiri lineage, founded by
Taisen Deshimaru, a student of Kodo Sawaki, was a Soto Zen priest from Japan who taught in France. The International Zen Association, which he founded, remains influential. The American Zen Association, headquartered at the New Orleans Zen Temple, is one of the North American organizations practicing in the Deshimaru tradition.
Rinzai
Rinzai gained prominence in the West via
Some of the more prominent Rinzai Zen centers in North America include
United Kingdom
The lineage of
Taisen Deshimaru Roshi's lineage is known in the UK as IZAUK (International Zen Association UK).[citation needed]
The Zen Centre in London is connected to the Buddhist Society.
Zenways[44] is a Rinzai school organisation in South London. It is led by Daizan Roshi a British teacher who received Dharma transmission from Shinzan Miyamae Roshi.
The Western Chan Fellowship is an association of lay Chán practitioners based in the UK.[citation needed] They are registered as a charity in England and Wales, but also have contacts in Europe, principally in Norway, Poland, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland and the US.
See also
- Buddhism
- Outline of Buddhism
- Timeline of Buddhism
- List of Buddhists
- Buddhism in Japan
- Buddhist modernism
- Chinese Chán
Notes
References
- ^ OCLC 643092515. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
- ^ a b Cook 2003.
- OCLC 1128825155. Archivedfrom the original on 2021-07-11. Retrieved 2021-07-01.
- from the original on 2021-07-13. Retrieved 2021-07-01.
- from the original on 2021-07-11. Retrieved 2021-07-01.
- from the original on 2022-07-22. Retrieved 2021-07-01.
- ^ from the original on 2006-10-18. Retrieved 2021-06-29.
- ^ hdl:1887/19051. Archivedfrom the original on 2022-07-22. Retrieved 2021-06-29.
- ^ Breugem 2006, p. 39-60.
- ^ Dumoulin 2005b, p. 7-8.
- ^ Dumoulin 2005b, p. 14–15.
- ^ a b c d e f Snelling 1987
- ^ Dumoulin 2005b:151
- ^ Dumoulin 2005b:151–152
- ^ Dumoulin 2005b:153
- ^ Dumoulin 2005b:185
- ^ Dumoulin 2005b:185–186
- ^ Dumoulin 2005b:198
- ^ a b c McMahan 2008
- ^ a b c Victoria 2006
- ^ a b c d Sharf 1993
- ^ Victoria 2010
- ^ Bodiford 1992:150
- ^ a b Kalupahana 1992.
- ^ Kapleau 1989
- ^ Sharf 1993
- ^ Mumonkan. The Gateless Gate. Archived from the original on 2015-03-17. Retrieved 2015-03-27.
- ^ a b c Zhu 2005.
- ^ Kalupahana 1992, p. 138-140.
- ^ Zhu 2005, p. 427.
- ^ a b Polak 2011.
- ^ Arbel 2017.
- ^ Herrigel 1952
- ^ Shoji n.d.
- ^ Hu Shih 1953
- ^ Heller n.d.
- ^ Merton 1968
- ^ Merton 1967a
- ^ Merton 1967b
- ^ Warneka 2006
- .
- ^ Tanahashi & Chayat 1996
- ^ "Norwich Zen Buddhist Priory". Order of Buddhist Contemplatives. 24 June 2013. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
- ^ Zenways website https://zenways.org/
Sources
Printed sources
- Almgren, Irina (2011), The myth of the all-wise zen-master and the irritating complexity of reality, archived from the original on 2012-04-26, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Arbel, Keren (2017), Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight, Routledge, ISBN 9781317383994, archivedfrom the original on 2019-04-04, retrieved 2018-12-15
- S2CID 161648097
- Breugem, Vincent M.N. (2006), From Prominence to Obscurity: a Study of the Darumashū: Japan's first Zen School, Thesis (PDF), Leiden University, archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-03-19, retrieved 2014-03-29
- Cook, Francis Dojun (vertaler) (2003), The Record of Transmitting the Light. Zen Master Keizan's Denkoroku, Boston: Wisdom Publications
- Dumonlin, Heinrich (2000), A History of Zen Buddhism, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
- Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005a), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China, World Wisdom Books, ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1
- Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005b), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan, World Wisdom Books, ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7
- Ford, James Myoun, A Note On Dharma Transmission And The Institutions Of Zen, archived from the original on 2012-01-20, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Hau, Hoo (1975), The Sound of the One Hand: 281 Zen Koans with Answers
- Heine, Steven (2008), Zen Skin, Zen Marrow
- Heller, Christine (n.d.), Chasing Zen Clouds (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-06-14, retrieved 2007-01-07
- Herrigel, Eugen (1952), Zen in the Art of Archery, Pantheon, NY: Vintage Books, ISBN 978-0-375-70509-0
- Hori, Victor Sogen (2005), Introduction. In: Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan (PDF), World Wisdom Books, pp. xiii–xxi, ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7, archived(PDF) from the original on 2012-03-09, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Hu Shih (January 1953), "Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China. Its History and Method", Philosophy East and West, 3 (1): 3–24, from the original on 2020-02-17, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Jaksch, Mary (2007), The Road to Nowhere. Koans and the Deconstruction of the Zen Saga (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-02-20, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Kalupahana, David J. (1992), The Principles of Buddhist Psychology, Delhi: ri Satguru Publications
- Kapleau, Philip (1989), The three pillars of Zen
- Lachs, Stuart (2006), The Zen Master in America: Dressing the Donkey with Bells and Scarves, archived from the original on 2012-01-20, retrieved 2011-12-13
- McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518327-6
- McRae, John (2003), Seeing Through Zen. Encounter, Transformation, and Genealogy in Chinese Chan Buddhism, The University Press Group Ltd, ISBN 978-0-520-23798-8
- McRae, John (2005), Critical introduction by John McRae to the reprint of Dumoulin's A history of Zen (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-11-11, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Merton, Thomas (1967a), The Way of Chuang Tzu, New York: New Directions, ISBN 978-0-8112-0103-2
- Merton, Thomas (1967b), Mystics and Zen Masters, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, ISBN 978-0-374-52001-4
- Merton, Thomas (1968), Zen and the Birds of Appetite, New Directions Publishing Corporation, ISBN 978-0-8112-0104-9
- Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
- Sato, Kemmyō Taira, D.T. Suzuki and the Question of War (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-25
- Scaligero, Massimo (1960). "The Doctrine of the "Void" and the Logic of the Essence". East and West. 11 (4): 249–257.
- Sharf, Robert H. (August 1993), "The Zen of Japanese Nationalism", History of Religions, 33 (1): 1–43, from the original on 2020-12-29, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Sharf, Robert H. (1995), Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-02-02, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Shoji, Yamada (n.d.), The Myth of Zen in the Art of Archery (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-06-14, retrieved 2007-01-03
- Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice, London: Century Paperbacks
- Suzuki, Shunryu (2011), Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind
- Tanahashi, Kazuaki; Chayat, Roko Sherry (1996), Endless Vow. The Zen Path of Soen Nakagawa, Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala Publications
- Tweed, Thomas A. (2005), "American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J. Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History" (PDF), Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 32 (2): 249–281, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-22, retrieved 2011-12-14
- Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at war (Second ed.), Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
- Victoria, Brian Daizen (2010), "The "Negative Side" of D. T. Suzuki's Relationship to War" (PDF), The Eastern Buddhist, 41 (2): 97–138, archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-01-20, retrieved 2011-12-13
- Warneka, Timothy H. (2006), Leading People the Black Belt Way: Conquering the Five Core Problems Facing Leaders Today, Asogomi Publishing International, ISBN 978-0-9768627-0-3
- Wetering, Janwillem van de (1999), The Empty Mirror: Experiences in a Japanese Zen Monastery
- Zhu, Rui (2005), "Distinguishing Sōtō and Rinzai Zen: Manas and the Mental Mechanics of Meditation" (PDF), East and West, 55 (3): 426–446, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-12-14, retrieved 2018-12-14
Web-sources
- ^ Jalon, Allan M. (11 January 2003). "Meditating On War And Guilt, Zen Says It's Sorry". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
- ^ Apology for What the Founder of the Sanbo-Kyodan, Haku'un Yasutani Roshi, Said and Did During World War II
- ^ Jeff Shore: The constant practice of right effort[permanent dead link]
- ^ A Chronology of Thomas Merton's Life Archived 2016-05-13 at the Wayback Machine. The Thomas Merton Center at Bellarmine University. Retrieved 26 March 2008.
- ^ "Vatican discernments on the use of Zen and Yoga in christian prayer". Archived from the original on 2010-05-02. Retrieved 2011-12-13.
Further reading
- Modern classics
- Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones
- Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen
- Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind
- Classic historiography
- Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China. World Wisdom Books. ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1
- Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan. World Wisdom Books. ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7
- Critical historiography
- Sharf, Robert H. (1995a), Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited (PDF)
- Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at War. Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. (Second Edition)
- Borup, Jorn (n.d.), Zen and the Art of inverting Orientalism: religious studies and genealogical networks
- Mcrae, John (2003), Seeing through Zen. Encounter, Transformation, and Genealogy in Chinese Chan Buddhism. The University Press Group Ltd . ISBN 978-0-520-23798-8
- McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518327-6
- (Japanese) Zen as living religious institution and practice
- Borup, Jørn (2008), Japanese Rinzai Zen Buddhism: Myōshinji, a Living Religion, Brill
- Hori, Victor Sogen (1994), Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery. In: Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol.20, No. 1, (Winter, 1994), 5-35 (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-10-25
External links
- Overview
- Rinzai-zen
- Soto-zen
- Sanbo Kyodan
- Critical Zen-practice
- Zen-centers
- Zen Centers at Curlie
- Zen centers of the world
- Zen centers
- Texts
- Sacred-text.com's collection of Zen texts
- Buddhanet's collection of Zen texts
- Shambhala Sun Zen Articles Archived 2008-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
- Kyoto and Japanese Buddhism by Tokushi Yusho. Introduction to Zen culture in Kyoto.
- Critical Zen Research