Japanese diaspora
日系人 Nikkeijin | |
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better source needed] (2018) | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Ryukyuan diaspora | |
Note: For this country, only the number of residents with Japanese nationality is shown, since the number of naturalized Japanese people and their descendants is unknown. |
The Japanese diaspora and its individual members, known as Nikkei (日系) or as Nikkeijin (日系人), comprise the
According to the Association of Nikkei and Japanese Abroad, about 4 million Nikkei live in their adopted countries.
As of 2022[update], the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs reported the five countries with the highest number of Japanese expatriates as the United States (418,842), China (102,066), Australia (94,942), Thailand (78,431) and Canada (74,362).[8]
Terminology
The term Nikkei, from the Japanese word nikkei (日系, lit. "of Japanese lineage"), is often used to refer to Japanese people who emigrated from Japan and their descendants.[22] These groups were historically differentiated by the terms issei (first-generation Nikkei), nisei (second-generation Nikkei), sansei (third-generation Nikkei) and yonsei (fourth-generation Nikkei). In this context emigration refers to permanent settlers, excluding transient Japanese abroad, although the term may not strictly relate to citizenship status. The Japanese government defines Nikkei people as foreign citizens with the ability to provide proof of Japanese lineage within three generations. On the other hand, in the United States and some other places where Nikkei people have developed their own communities and identities, first-generation Japanese immigrants with Japanese citizenship tend to be included if they are involved in the local community.[23]
The Japanese American National Museum, based upon a collaborative project that involved more than 100 scholars from 10 countries, has defined Nikkei as follows:
We are talking about Nikkei people - Japanese emigrants and their descendants who have created communities throughout the world. The term Nikkei has multiple and diverse meanings depending on situations, places, and environments. Nikkei also include people of mixed racial descent who identify themselves as Nikkei. Native Japanese also use the term Nikkei for the emigrants and their descendants who return to Japan. Many of these Nikkei live in close communities and retain identities separate from the native Japanese.[24]
Early history
Japanese emigration to the rest of Asia was noted as early as the 15th century to the
From the 15th through the early 17th century, Japanese seafarers traveled to China and Southeast Asia countries, in some cases establishing early Japantowns.[33] This activity ended in the 1640s, when the Tokugawa shogunate imposed maritime restrictions which forbade Japanese from leaving the country and from returning if they were already abroad. This policy would not be lifted for over two hundred years. Travel restrictions were eased once Japan opened diplomatic relations with Western nations. In 1867, the bakufu began issuing travel documents for overseas travel and emigration.[34]
Before 1885, fewer and fewer Japanese people emigrated from Japan, in part because the Meiji government was reluctant to allow emigration, both because it lacked the political power to adequately protect Japanese emigrants and because it believed that the presence of Japanese as unskilled laborers in foreign countries would hamper its ability to revise the
Asia
Before 1945
In 1898, the Dutch East Indies colonial government statistics showed 614 Japanese in the Dutch East Indies (166 men, 448 women).[38] During the American colonial era in the Philippines, the Japanese population of Davao, most of whom first started out as laborers working in abaca plantations in Davao, were recorded in statistics as only numbering 30 in 1903, then 5,533 by 1920, then 12,469 by 1930, then later increased to 20,000 by 1941.[39][40] The number of Japanese laborers working in plantations rose so high that in the early 20th century, Davao City soon became dubbed as Davaokuo (in Philippine and American media) or (in Japanese: 小日本國「こにっぽんこく」, romanized: Ko Nippon Koku, lit. 'Little Japan') with a Japanese school, a Shinto shrine, and a diplomatic mission from Japan. The place that used to be "Little Tokyo" in Davao was Mintal.[41] There is even a popular restaurant called "The Japanese Tunnel", which includes an actual tunnel made by the Japanese in time of the war.[42]
In the Philippines,
There was also a significant level of emigration to the overseas territories of the
In 1938 about 309,000 Japanese lived in Taiwan.[49] By the end of World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese in Korea[50] and more than 2 million in China,[51] most of them farmers in Manchukuo (the Japanese had a plan to bring in 5 million Japanese settlers into Manchukuo).[52]
Over 400,000 people lived on Karafuto (Southern Sakhalin) when the Soviet offensive began in early August 1945. Most were of Japanese or Korean descent. When Japan lost the Kuril Islands, 17,000 Japanese were expelled, most from the southern islands.[53]
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Japanese Christian in Jakarta, c. 1656
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Japanese and Korean children, 1908–1922
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Japanese Sunday school class in Korea, 1908–1922
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Japanese office workers in Manila, 1930s
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Japanese elementary school class on Saipan, 1932
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Japanese school on Tinian, 1932
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Etorofu, 1933
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Japanese parade inToyohara, 1937
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Japanese shoppers inTaihoku, 1939
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Japanese family in Manchukuo, 1940s
After 1945
During and after World War II, most of these overseas Japanese repatriated to Japan. The Allied powers repatriated over 6 million Japanese nationals from colonies and battlefields throughout Asia.[54] Only a few remained overseas, often involuntarily, as in the case of orphans in China or prisoners of war captured by the Red Army and forced to work in Siberia.[55] During the 1950s and 1960s, an estimated 6,000 Japanese accompanied Zainichi Korean spouses repatriating to North Korea, while another 27,000 prisoners-of-war are estimated to have been sent there by the Soviet Union; see Japanese people in North Korea.[55][56]
There is a community of Japanese people in Hong Kong largely made up of expatriate businessmen. Additionally, there are 19,612 Japanese expatriates in Indonesia based mostly in the cities of Jakarta and Bali.[57]
Americas
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2022) |
The Japanese diaspora has been unique in the absence of new emigration flows in the second half of the 20th century.[58] However, research reports that during the post-war many Japanese migrated individually to join existing communities abroad.[59]
North America
People from Japan began migrating to the U.S. and Canada in significant numbers following the political, cultural and social changes stemming from the 1868 Meiji Restoration. (see Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians)
Canada
In Canada, small multi-generational communities of Japanese immigrants developed and adapted to life outside Japan.[60]
Caribbean
There was a small amount of Japanese settlement in the Dominican Republic between 1956 and 1961, in a program initiated by Dominican Republic leader Rafael Trujillo. Protests over the extreme hardships and broken government promises faced by the initial group of migrants set the stage for the end of state-supported labor emigration in Japan.[61][62]
Mexico
United States
In the United States, particularly after the
The majority of Japanese settled in Hawaii, where today a third of the state's population are of Japanese descent and the rest in the West Coast (California, Oregon, Washington and Alaska) and Southwestern United States (Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent parts of Colorado, Nevada, Texas, and Utah), but other significant communities are found in the Northeast (Maine, New York, New Jersey, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Pennsylvania) and Midwest (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota and Wisconsin) states.
South America
Argentina
Argentina is home to about 80,000 people with Japanese descents. Most of them lives in Buenos Aires and districts like Balvanera and Monserrat has many Japanese restaurants, shops and izakayas. Buenos Aires also has the largest Japanese garden outside Japan, called Jardín Japonés, located in Palermo district.[67]
Brazil
Japanese Brazilians are the largest ethnic Japanese community outside Japan (numbering about 2 million,[2] compared to about 1.5 million in the United States) and São Paulo contains the largest concentration of Japanese outside Japan. Paraná and Mato Grosso do Sul also have a large Japanese community. The first Japanese immigrants (791 people, mostly farmers) came to Brazil in 1908 on the Kasato Maru from the Japanese port of Kobe, moving to Brazil in search of better living conditions. Many of them ended up as laborers on coffee farms (for testimony of Kasato Maru's travelers that continued to Argentina see es:Café El Japonés, see also Shindo Renmei). Immigration of Japanese workers in Brazil was actually subsidized by São Paulo up until 1921, with around 40,000 Japanese emigrating to Brazil between the years of 1908 and 1925, and 150,000 pouring in during the following 16 years. The most immigrants to come in one year peaked in 1933 at 24,000, but restrictions due to ever growing anti-Japanese sentiment caused it to die down and then eventually halt at the start of World War II. Japanese immigration into Brazil actually saw continued traffic after it resumed in 1951. Around 60,000 entered the country during 1951 and 1981, with a sharp decline happening in the 1960s due to a resurgence of Japan's domestic economy.[65]
Colombia
The
Peru
Japanese Peruvians form another notable ethnic Japanese community with an estimated 6,000 Issei and 100,000 Japanese descendants (Nisei, Sansei, Yonsei), and including a former Peruvian president, Alberto Fujimori. Japanese food known as Nikkei cuisine is a rich part of Peruvian-Japanese culture, which includes the use of seaweed broth and sushi-inspired versions of ceviche.[69][70] As a result of Peru's gastronomic revolution and global gastrodiplomacy campaign, Nikkei is now recognized among international culinary networks as a cuisine that is uniquely a fusion of Japanese and Peruvian influences. This change has created revenues for Japanese-Peruvian communities in Lima and enabled Nikkei chefs to open up restaurants in other metropolitan cities around the world.[71]
Europe
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) |
The Japanese in Britain form the largest Japanese community in Europe with well over 100,000 living all over the United Kingdom (the majority being in London).[citation needed] In recent years, many young Japanese have been migrating from Japan to Britain to engage in cultural production and to become successful artists in London.[72]
There are also small numbers of
There is a sizable Japanese community in Düsseldorf, Germany[75] of nearly 8,400 (as of 2018[update]) Japanese nationals (not ethnics).[76] Many of them are expatriates who stay there only for a few years.[77]
Oceania
Early Japanese immigrants were particularly prominent in
There is also a small but growing Japanese community in New Zealand, primarily in Auckland and Wellington.
In the census of December 1939, the total population of the South Seas Mandate was 129,104, of which 77,257 were Japanese. By December 1941, Saipan had a population of more than 30,000 people, including 25,000 Japanese.[79] There are Japanese people in Palau, Guam and Northern Mariana Islands.
Return migration to Japan
During the 1980s economic boom in Japan, the country faced a shortage of workers willing to take on difficult, dirty, and dangerous jobs, known as the three K jobs (kitsui, kitanai, and kiken). To address this labor shortage, Japan's Ministry of Labor began granting visas to people of Japanese ethnic descent from South America to come and work in factories. The vast majority, estimated around 300,000, came from Brazil, but there were also sizable populations from Peru and smaller numbers from other South American countries.
In response to the 2009 recession, the Japanese government offered a payment of ¥300,000 ($3,300 at the time) to unemployed Japanese descendants from South America as an incentive for them to return to their countries of origin. An additional ¥200,000 ($2,200) was offered for each family member who left Japan. However, those who accepted this offer were not allowed to return to Japan with the same privileged visa they had initially entered the country with. Arudou Debito, a columnist for The Japan Times, criticized this policy as racist since it only targeted foreign nationals of Japanese descent with special "person of Japanese ancestry" visas.
Some commentators also accused the policy of being exploitative. Many of these nikkei (Japanese diaspora) had been incentivized to immigrate to Japan in 1990 and were regularly working over 60 hours per week. When widespread unemployment hit the Japanese workforce, they were being asked to leave. At the same time, this return migration created complex relationships between the nikkei, their homeland, and their former host country of Japan – a condition dubbed a "squared diaspora" with shifting allegiances. This has also led to new patterns of circular migration as first and second generation nikkei travel back and forth between Japan and their home countries.
Major cities with significant populations of Japanese nationals
- Los Angeles, United States: 68,595
- Bangkok, Thailand: 57,486
- Shanghai, China: 41,756
- New York City, United States: 40,496
- Singapore: 36,797
- Sydney, Australia: 34,679
- Greater London, United Kingdom: 34,125
- Vancouver, Canada: 27,962
- Hong Kong, 24,205
- Honolulu, United States: 21,329
- Melbourne, Australia: 20,175
- San Francisco, United States: 19,997
- San Jose, United States: 16,008
- Seoul, South Korea: 14,920
- Toronto, Canada: 14,160
- Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 13,502
- Paris, France: 13,152
- Taipei, Taiwan: 12,581
- Chicago, United States: 12,147
- Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam: 11,927
- Seattle, United States: 11,355
- São Paulo, Brazil: 11,295
- Düsseldorf, Germany: 10,247
- Lima, Peru: 9,813
- Auckland, New Zealand: 9,648
- Busan, South Korea: 9,416
- Moscow, Russia: 9,155
- Hanoi, Vietnam: 8,922
- Mexico City, Mexico: 8,537
- Mumbai, India: 8,139
- Manila, Philippines: 7,804
- Buenos Aires, Argentina: 7,623
- Yangon, Myanmar: 6,513
- Montreal, Canada: 6,224
- Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 5,842
- Berlin, Germany: 5,193
- Johannesburg, South Africa: 4,573
- Edinburgh, United Kingdom: 4,362
- Brisbane, Australia: 4,208
- Boston, United States: 4,176
- Frankfurt, Germany: 3,487
- Dubai, United Arab Emirates: 3,380
- Tashkent, Uzbekistan: 3,274
- Zürich, Switzerland: 3,087
- Atlanta, United States: 2,941
- Phnom Penh, Cambodia: 2,896
- Munich, Germany: 2,638
- Amsterdam, Netherlands: 2,415
- Bogotá, Colombia: 2,394
- Budapest, Hungary: 2,338
- Istanbul, Turkey: 2,287
- Vienna, Austria: 2,193
- Milan, Italy: 2,097
- Barcelona, Spain: 2,042
- Dublin, Ireland: 1,934
- Houston, United States: 1,906
- Helsinki, Finland: 1,863
- Cairo, Egypt: 1,822
- Warsaw, Poland: 1,785
- Madrid, Spain: 1,712
- Prague, Czech Republic: 1,607
- Hamburg, Germany: 1,587
- Stockholm, Sweden: 1,524
Note: The above data shows the number of Japanese nationals living overseas as of October 13, 2020, according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.[80]
See also
- Issei, Nisei, Sansei, Yonsei & Gosei
- Buddhist Churches of America
- Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii & Hawaii Shingon Mission
- Gedatsu Church of America
- Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Temples of Canada
- South America Hongwanji Mission
- List of Shinto shrines in the United States
- Saipan Katori Shrine
- Dom Justo Takayama
Notes
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- tab "都市別邦人数上位50位"
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External links
- Discover Nikkei, A site co-ordinated with the Japanese American National Museum and affiliated with academic, community programs, and scholars.
- Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA): Future Policy Regarding Cooperation with Overseas Communities of Nikkei
- APJ, A non-profit organization representing Japanese Citizens living in Peru and their descendants.
- NikkeiCity, Information of the nikkei in Peru.
- Nikkei Youth Network Archived 18 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, A network of nikkei leaders around the world.
- Japanese Canadians Photograph Collection – A photo album from the UBC Library Digital Collections depicting the life of Japanese Canadians in British Columbia during World War II
- ハルとナツ, a TV drama based on historical events aired by NHK in October 2005.
- Hoji Shinbun Digital Collection, Hoover Institution Library & Archives Japanese Diaspora Initiative.