Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Hong Kong Occupied Territory
香港占領地[1]
Honkon senryō-chi
1941–1945
Anthem: 
  • "
    Emperor
 
• 1941–1945
Hirohito
Governor-General 
• 1941–1942
Takashi Sakai
Masaichi Niimi
• 1942–1944
Rensuke Isogai
• 1944–1945
Hisakazu Tanaka
Historical eraWorld War II
8–25 December 1941
• Surrender of Hong Kong
25 December 1941
15 August 1945
• Handover to the Royal Navy
30 August 1945
Area
1941[2][3]1,042 km2 (402 sq mi)
1945[2][4]1,042 km2 (402 sq mi)
Population
• 1941[2][3]
1,639,000
• 1945[2][4]
600,000
CurrencyJapanese military yen
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
British Hong Kong
British Hong Kong
Today part of
People's Republic of China
 ∟ Hong Kong
Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
Hanyu Pinyin
Xiānggǎng Rìzhìshíqī
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationHēung góng yaht jih sìhk kèih
JyutpingHeong1 gong2 jat6 zi6 sik4 kei4

The Imperial Japanese occupation of Hong Kong began when the

metonym of the occupation.[6]

Background

This article is part of a series on the
History of Hong Kong
Timeline
Prehistoric
Imperial  (221 BC – 1800s)
Bao'an County and Xin'an County
British Hong Kong (1841–1941, 1945–1997)
Colonial  (1800s–1930s)
Convention of Chuenpi
Treaty of Nanking
Convention of Peking
Japanese occupation (1941–1945)   (1940s)
Retrocession to China
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
(since 1997)
  • 2021 electoral reform
By topic

Imperial Japanese invasion of China

Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War

During the Imperial Japanese military's

full-scale invasion of China in 1937, Hong Kong as part of the British empire was not under attack. Nevertheless, its situation was influenced by the war in China due to proximity to the mainland China. In early March 1939, during an Imperial Japanese bombing raid on Shenzhen, a few bombs fell accidentally on Hong Kong territory, destroying a bridge and a train station.[7]
The Second World War saw Hong Kong falling into the hands of the Japanese who transformed it into a military centre for their campaign in Asia. The British took back Hong Kong in 1945 after Japan's surrender, and the Chinese Civil War subsequently brought waves of rich and poor refugees from the mainland, providing both capital and cheap labour and building the foundation for Hong Kong later becoming one of the world's financial centres. However, in the 1950s during the Korean War, the United States banned trade with communist China, hurting Hong Kong's businesses and slowing its economic progress. As part of the Cultural Revolution in 1967, violent riots protesting against colonial power paralysed the economy and the Hong Kong stock market collapsed in 1973.

World War II

Main article:
European Theatre of World War II

In 1936,

Axis Powers.[8]

In the autumn of 1941, Nazi Germany was near the height of its military power. After the

fall of France, German forces had overrun much of Western Europe and were racing towards Moscow.[9] The United States was neutral and opposition to Nazi Germany was given only by Britain, the British Commonwealth and the Soviet Union.[10]

The United States provided minor support to China in its fight against Imperial Japan's invasion. It imposed an embargo on the sale of oil to Japan after less aggressive forms of economic sanctions failed to halt Japanese advances.[11] On 7 December 1941 (Honolulu time), Japan entered World War II with the Japanese occupation of Malaya, as well as other attacks including attacking the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor and American-ruled Philippines, and the Japanese invasion of Thailand.

Battle of Hong Kong

Main article: Battle of Hong Kong

As part of a general Pacific campaign, the Japanese launched an assault on Hong Kong on the morning of 8 December 1941.

Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Forces attempted to resist the rapidly advancing Japanese, but were heavily outnumbered. After racing down the New Territories and Kowloon, Japanese forces crossed Victoria Harbour on 18 December.[13] After fierce fighting continued on Hong Kong Island on 25 December 1941, British colonial officials headed by the governor of Hong Kong, Mark Aitchison Young, surrendered at the Japanese headquarters.[2] To the local people, the day was known as "Black Christmas".[14]

The surrender of Hong Kong was signed on the 26th at The Peninsula Hotel.[15] On 20 February 1942 General Rensuke Isogai became the first Imperial Japanese governor of Hong Kong.[16] This ushered in almost four years of Imperial Japanese administration.

Politics

Rensuke Isogai

Throughout the Imperial Japanese occupation, Hong Kong was ruled under martial law as an occupied territory.[17] Led by General Rensuke Isogai, the Japanese established their administrative centre and military headquarters at the Peninsula Hotel in Kowloon. The military government; comprising administrative, civilian affairs, economic, judicial, and naval departments; enacted stringent regulations and, through executive bureaux, exercised power over all residents of Hong Kong. They also set up the puppet Chinese Representative Council and Chinese Cooperative Council, consisting of local leading Chinese and Eurasian community leaders.

In addition to Governor Mark Young, 7,000 British soldiers and civilians were kept in

Sham Shui Po Prisoner Camp and Stanley Internment Camp.[18]
Famine, malnourishment and sickness were pervasive. Severe cases of malnutrition among inmates occurred in the Stanley Internment Camp in 1945. Moreover, the Imperial Japanese military government blockaded Victoria Harbour and controlled various warehouses in and around the city.

Early in January 1942, former members of the

former Supreme Court Building.[20] Police in Hong Kong were under the organisation and control of the Imperial Japanese government. Imperial Japanese experts and administrators were chiefly employed in the Governor's Office and its various bureaus. Two councils of Chinese and Eurasian leaders were set up to manage the Chinese population.[19]

Economy

Imperial Japanese soldiers arrested European bankers and detained them in a hotel.

All trade and economic activities were strictly regulated by Japanese authorities, who took control of the majority of the factories. Having deprived vendors and banks of their possessions, the occupying forces outlawed the

Hyper-inflation then disrupted the economy, inflicting hardship upon the residents of the colony.[21] Enormous devaluation of the Imperial Japanese Military Yen after the war made it almost worthless.[15]

Public transportation and utilities unavoidably failed, owing to the shortage of

air strip at Kam Tin for their rice-growing experiments.[5]: 157, 159, 165 [23][page needed
]

With the intention of boosting the Imperial Japanese influence on Hong Kong, two Imperial Japanese banks, the

Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) and two other British banks responsible for issuing the banknotes.[5][page needed] They then liquidated various Allied banks.[5][page needed] British, American and Dutch bankers were forced to live in a small hotel, while some bankers who were viewed as enemies of the Imperial Japanese were executed. In May 1942, Imperial Japanese companies were encouraged to be set up. A Hong Kong trade syndicate consisting of Imperial Japanese firms was set up in October 1942 to manipulate overseas trade.[23][page needed
]

Life under Japanese occupation

Life in fear

Population decrease due to repatriation

In order to cope with a lack of resources and the potential for

Chinese residents of Hong Kong to support the allied forces in a possible invasion to retake the colony, the Japanese introduced a policy of enforced deportation. As a result, the unemployed were deported to Mainland China, and the population of Hong Kong dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945.[24]

Furthermore, the Japanese modified the territory's infrastructure and landscape significantly in order to serve their wartime interests. In order to expand the

Anglican church and La Salle College were commandeered by occupying forces as military hospitals. It was rumoured that Diocesan Boys' School was used by the Japanese as an execution site.[citation needed
]

Life was hard for

rationed necessities such as rice, oil, flour, salt and sugar. Each family was given a rationing licence, and every person could only buy 6.4 taels (240 g (8.5 oz)), of rice per day.[1]
Most people did not have enough food to eat, and many died of starvation. The rationing system was abolished in 1944.

Atrocities

According to eyewitnesses, the Japanese committed atrocities against many local Hong Kong people, including the rape of many ethnic Chinese women. During the three years and eight months of occupation, an estimated 10,000 civilian Hong Kong people were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated.[25]

Between the Surrender of Japan (15 August 1945) and formal surrender of Hong Kong to Rear Admiral Sir Cecil Harcourt (16 September 1945), fifteen Japanese soldiers arrested, tortured and executed around three hundred villagers of Silver Mine District of Lantau Island in retaliation for being ambushed by Chinese guerrillas.[26] The incident was later referred as Silver Mine Bay massacre (銀礦灣大屠殺) by locals.

Charity and social services

During the occupation, hospitals available to the masses were limited. The Kowloon Hospital and Queen Mary Hospital were occupied by the Japanese army.[27] Despite the lack of medicine and funds, the Tung Wah and Kwong Wah Hospital continued their social services but on a limited scale. These included provision of food, medicine, clothing, and burial services. Although funds were provided, they still had great financial difficulties. Failure to collect rents and the high reparation costs forced them to promote fundraising activities like musical performances and dramas.[citation needed]

Tung Wah Hospital and the charitable organisation Po Leung Kuk continued to provide charity relief, while substantial donations were given by members of the Chinese elite.[28] Po Leung Kuk also took in orphans, but were faced with financial problems during the occupation, as their bank deposits could not be withdrawn under Japanese control. Their services could only be continued through donations by Aw Boon Haw, a long-term financier of Po Leung Kuk.[citation needed]

Health and public hygiene

There were very few public hospitals during the Japanese occupation, as many of them were forcibly converted to military hospitals. Despite the inadequate supply of resources, Tung Wah Hospital and Kwong Wah Hospital still continuously offered limited social services to needy people. In June 1943, the management of water, gas and electricity was transferred into private Japanese hands.[5][page needed]

Education, press and political propaganda

A hand-out of a Japanese language learning radio programme
Names of roads were rewritten in Japanese
Celebration of a "New Hong Kong" after Japanese occupation

Through schooling, mass media and other means of propaganda, the Japanese tried to foster favourable view amongst residents of the occupation. This process of Japanisation prevailed in many aspects of daily life.

Education

It was the Japanese conviction that education was key to securing their influence over the populace. The Japanese language became a mandatory subject in schools, and students who performed poorly in Japanese exams risked corporal punishment. According to a testimonial, English was forbidden from being taught and was not tolerated outside the classroom.

Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere
.

By 1943, in stark contrast to the successful imposition of the Japanese language upon the local populace, only one formal language school, the Bougok School (寳覺學校), was providing Cantonese language courses to Japanese people in Hong Kong. According to an instructor at the Bougok School, "teaching Cantonese is difficult because there is no system and set pattern in Cantonese grammar; and you have to change the pronunciation as the occasion demands" and "it would be easier for Cantonese people to learn Japanese than Japanese people to learn Cantonese".[31]

Streets and buildings

See also:
Shōwa-dori.[5][32] Similarly, the Gloucester Hotel became the Matsubara.[33] The Peninsula Hotel, the Matsumoto;[34] Lane Crawford, Matsuzakaya.[35] The Queen's was renamed first the Nakajima Theatre, then the Meiji Theatre.[35] Their propaganda also pointed to the pre-eminence of the Japanese way of life, of Japanese spiritual values and the ills of western materialism.[citation needed
]

Government House, the residence of British governors prior to occupation, was the seat of power for the Japanese military governors. During the occupation, the buildings were largely reconstructed in 1944 following designs by Japanese engineer Siechi Fujimura, including the addition of a Japanese-style tower which remains to this day.[36] Many Georgian architectural features were removed during this period.[37] The roofs also continue to reflect a Japanese influence.[38]

The commemoration of Japanese festivals, state occasions, victories and anniversaries also strengthened the Japanese influence over Hong Kong. For instance, there was Yasukuri or Shrine Festival honouring the dead. There was also a Japanese Empire Day on 11 February 1943 centred around the worship of the Emperor Jimmu.[23][page needed]

Press and entertainment

The

Dai Nippon Film Company
, the film featured an all-Japanese cast but a few Hong Kong film personalities were also involved. This film appeared on the first anniversary of the attack.

War crimes

Murder in Hong Kong Island

In 1941, the Japanese army transported a carload of people to the beach near the Queen Mary Hospital and killed them all. Identities of the victims are still unknown.[41]

Refugee boat sinking

On 19 May 1942, 10,000 refugees were detained by the Japanese army and escorted to the Sai Wan, where they boarded the ships. When they boarded the ship, each was given a jar of rice weighing about two kilograms, two pieces of bread, and ten Hong Kong dollars. After boarding the ship, the refugees were locked in the bilge. A total of nineteen ships were towed by a small boat, but soon after the journey started, a typhoon hit and the ships were left to drift on their own. Fourteen sank, killing about 3,000 people. The bow of another ship was destroyed. Survivors rescued later were unable to walk due to starvation. Many of them died on the beach.[42]

Indiscriminate killing of civilians during census

On 18 September 1942, the Japanese Occupation Government in Hong Kong held the first

population census. According to historical documents, more than 2,000 people were killed or disappeared after being arrested during the census.[43]

Sinking of Lisbon Maru

On 25 September 1942, the Japanese army brought 1,816 prisoners of war from the Sham Shui Po prisoner of war camp to the freighter "Lisbon Maru" moored at Stonecutters Island, and set sail two days later to transport the prisoners of war to Japan for hard labor. The Japanese army did not mark the ship as transporting POWs. Lisbon Maru was torpedoed by the submarine USS Grouper of the US Pacific Fleet in the sea off Zhoushan, Zhejiang. The ship sank on 2 October. Although some prisoners of war swam out of the cabin to escape, the Japanese soldiers on the adjacent ships shot and killed the escaped prisoners, resulting in about 1,000 deaths and 384 injuries.

Refugees abandoned on Beaufort Island

In July 1944, about 400 refugees were found on the Beaufort Island where there were few plants or animals. They were left to fend for themselves. According to residents of Cape D'Aguilar in the nearby region, they often heard screams and cries coming from the island. Skeletons were found all over the area later on, most died from starvation or drowning in failed escape.[44]

Lynching at the Central Police Station

During the Japanese occupation, most people released from the Station died soon after, and it is estimated that more than 100 died due to starvation or torture. The police also transported some prisoners directly for execution without trials. Most of the interrogations were conducted by the Japanese military police only. There were no judges, lawyers, and observers.[45]

Forced labour on Hainan Island

In March 1942, 484 civilians who had been imprisoned at the Hop Kee Company on Gloucester Road, Wanchai, were deported to

Hainan Island
via the Japanese cargo ship " "Yuen Lam" for forced labour. After the Liberation of Hong Kong, only a hundred people were able to return. More than 300 people died of torture and starvation.

During the Japanese occupation, a total of 20,000 Hong Kong people and 20,000 mainlanders were abducted to mine in Hainan Island, where they were abused and many died of starvation.Of the 40,000 Chinese workers on Hainan Island, only 5,000 survived.[46]

North Point Prisoner Camp and Deportation

On the afternoon of 1 December 1944, a woman went out to collect firewood sticks on the side of the mountain. Suddenly, a Japanese military police and two Chinese police officers came to arrest her and stabbed her in the back.Two other elderly women who were arrested at the same time were also stabbed in the back. They were immediately taken to the Aberdeen Police Station and imprisoned. During the period, they were not provided with food and water. They were taken to the North Point Refugee Camp on 2 December.

There were also many prisoners in the camp, and the camp gate was guarded by Japanese military police and Chinese police with weapons. Some said there were only two meals a day in the camp, including a bowl of congee given at 8:00 in the morning. Prisoners were confined in jail all day. Some were stripped naked.There were children in the camp as well.

Two weeks later, the number of people in the camp reached 400. At 4 pm that day, all of them were forced to board a boat by the port at North Point. After a day, they arrived in Pinghai Town, Huizhou City . The able-bodied refugees were released; about seventy people deemed physically weak were slaughtered and their bodies were dumped into the sea.[47]

On 19 December 1941, a group of Japanese soldiers killed ten St. John stretcher bearers at

red cross armband. These soldiers captured a further five medics who were tied to a tree[clarification needed], two of whom were taken away by the soldiers, never to be seen again. The remaining three attempted to escape during the night, but only one survived the escape.[48] A team of amateur archaeologists found the remains of half of a badge. Evidence pointed to its belonging to Barclay, the captain of the Royal Army Medical Corps, therefore the archaeologists presented it to Barclay's son, Jim, who had never met his father before his death.[48] Other notable massacres near the end of the Battle of Hong Kong including the St. Stephen's College massacre
.

Between the Surrender of Japan (15 August 1945) and formal surrender of Hong Kong to Rear Admiral Sir Cecil Harcourt (16 September 1945), fifteen Japanese soldiers arrested, tortured and executed around three hundred villagers of Silver Mine District of Lantau Island as retaliation after being ambushed by Chinese guerrillas.[26] The incident was later referred as Silver Mine Bay massacre (銀礦灣大屠殺) by locals.

Anti-Japanese resistance

Dongjiang guerillas fighting in trenches

The

2nd China Expeditionary Fleet.[49]

East River Column

Main article: East River Column

Originally formed by

Pearl River deltas.[50] The guerillas' most significant contribution to the Allies, in particular, was their rescue of twenty American pilots who parachuted into Kowloon when their planes were shot down by the Japanese.[2] In the wake of the British retreat, the guerillas picked up abandoned weapons and established bases in the New Territories and Kowloon.[2] Applying the tactics of guerrilla warfare, they killed Chinese traitors and collaborators.[2] They protected traders in Kowloon and Guangzhou, attacked the police station at Tai Po, and bombed Kai Tak Airport.[2] During the Japanese occupation the only fortified resistance was mounted by the East River guerillas.[2]

Hong Kong Kowloon brigade

In January 1942, the HK-Kowloon Brigade (港九大隊) was established from the Guangdong People's anti-Japanese guerrilla force.

Sir Douglas Clague, Professor Gordan King, and David Bosanquet.[2] In December 1943 the Guangdong force reformed, with the East River guerrillas absorbing the HK-Kowloon brigade into the larger unit.[51][page needed
]

British Army Aid Group

The

Dongjiang River which was a source for domestic water in Hong Kong. This was the first organisation in which Britons, Chinese and other nationalities served with no racial divide.[citation needed] Francis Lee Yiu-pui and Paul Tsui Ka-cheung were commissioned as officers.[13]

Air raids

Main article: Air raids on Hong Kong

United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) units based in China attacked the Hong Kong area from October 1942. Most of these raids involved a small number of aircraft, and typically targeted Japanese cargo ships which had been reported by Chinese guerrillas.[52] By January 1945 the city was being regularly raided by the USAAF.[53] The largest raid on Hong Kong took place on 16 January 1945 when, as part of the South China Sea raid, 471 United States Navy aircraft attacked shipping, harbour facilities and other targets.[54]

Japanese surrender

Cecil Halliday Jepson Harcourt watching Japanese Vice Admiral Ruitako Fujita
sign the document of surrender on 16 September 1945 in Hong Kong.
Japanese document of surrender
The British cruiser HMS Swiftsure, entering Victoria Harbour through North Point on 30 August 1945
Liberation of Hong Kong in 1945. Picture taken at the Cenotaph in Central, Hong Kong
Japanese war criminals prepare for their transfer to Stanley Prison on 29 September 1945
Indian soldiers march during Hong Kong Victory Celebrations, 9 October 1945.
Main article: Liberation Day (Hong Kong)

The Japanese occupation of Hong Kong ended in 1945, after Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945.[6][55][56] Hong Kong was handed over by the Imperial Japanese Army to the Royal Navy on 30 August 1945; British control over Hong Kong was thus restored. 30 August was declared as "Liberation Day" (Chinese: 重光紀念日), and was a public holiday in Hong Kong until 1997.

General Takashi Sakai, who led the invasion of Hong Kong and subsequently served as governor-general during the Japanese occupation, was tried as a war criminal, convicted and executed on 30 September 1946.[57]

Post-war political stage

In the aftermath of the Japanese surrender, it was unclear whether the United Kingdom or the Republic of China would assume sovereignty of the territory. The

Franklin Roosevelt insisted that colonialism would have to end, and promised Soong Mei-ling that Hong Kong would be restored to Chinese control.[58][page needed
]

However, the British moved quickly to regain control of Hong Kong. As soon as he heard word of the Japanese surrender,

Chinese-Canadian Lt(N) William Lore of the Royal Canadian Navy as the first Allied officer ashore, in recognition of the sacrifices made by Canadian soldiers in the defence of Hong Kong.[59]

On 16 September 1945, Harcourt formally accepted the Japanese surrender[17] from Maj.-Gen. Umekichi Okada and Vice Admiral Ruitaro Fujita at Government House.[60]

Legacy

The United Kingdom would administer the territory for another 52 years. Hong Kong's post-war recovery was swift. By November 1945, government controls were lifted and free markets restored.[19] The population returned to around one million by early 1946 due to immigration from China.[19]

Colonial taboos also broke down in the post-war years as the United Kingdom realised that they could no longer administer their colonies as they did before the war, with numerous racial barriers and prejudices. Examples include no longer forbidding Chinese people and Asians from certain beaches, or from living on Victoria Peak stemming from the Peak District Reservation Ordinance 1904.[61]

Sovereignty of Hong Kong was eventually

Republic of China government is now based in Taipei, having lost the mainland in the Chinese Civil War
shortly after the Japanese surrender.

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^
    ISBN 978-962-209-734-6
    . pp. 130, 135.
  2. ^
    ISBN 0-19-590353-6
    . pp. 54–58.
  3. ISBN 1-84753-966-1
    .
  4. ISBN 962-209-612-3
    .
  5. ^
    ISBN 978-0-300-10373-1
    .
  6. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-927370-6
    . p. 14.
  7. ^ "War in China". Time. 6 March 1939. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  8. ISBN 978-3-11-019549-1
    .
  9. ^ Rees, Laurence (2010). "What Was the Turning Point of World War II?". historynet. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
  10. ^ Lend-lease at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  11. ^ Combs, Jerald A. "Embargoes and Sanctions – World War II". Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
  12. ISBN 978-0-670-80205-0
    .
  13. ^
    ISBN 978-1-84511-419-0
    . pp 122, 129.
  14. ^ "Hong Kong's 'Black Christmas'". China Daily. 8 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
  15. ^
    ISBN 978-962-209-949-4
    . pp 101, 103.
  16. ISBN 978-0-88920-362-4
    . pp 40, 49.
  17. ^
    ISBN 978-0-415-34319-0
    . p 184.
  18. ISBN 978-1-84568-038-1
    . p 175.
  19. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3
    . pp. 123–125, 129.
  20. ^ "Information note IN26/02-03: The Legislative Council Building" (PDF). Legislative Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  21. ^
    ISBN 978-0-312-37936-0
    . p. 90.
  22. ^
    ISBN 978-962-209-880-0
    . p. 83.
  23. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-580374-7
    .
  24. ^ Keith Bradsher (18 April 2005). "Thousands March in Anti-Japan Protest in Hong Kong". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2006. Retrieved 11 April 2006.
  25. ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3
    , p. 123
  26. ^ a b Linton, Suzannah; HKU Libraries. "WO235/993". Hong Kong’s War Crimes Trials Collection.
  27. ISBN 978-962-209-805-3
    . pp. 112, 302.
  28. ISBN 978-962-209-393-5
    . p. 209.
  29. ^
    ISBN 978-962-209-675-2
    . pp. 88, 134.
  30. ^ Higuchi, Kenichiro; Kwong, Yan Kit. [2009]. "Inflow of Japanese language into Hong Kong during the Japanese occupation period", Journal of Sugiyama Jogakuen University. Humanities. pp. 21, 22
  31. ^ Higuchi, Kenichiro; Kwong, Yan Kit. [2009]."Inflow of Japanese language into Hong Kong during the Japanese occupation period", Journal of Sugiyama Jogakuen University. Humanities. p. 23
  32. ISBN 978-962-209-742-1
    .
  33. ISBN 978-1-4067-4681-5
    . p. 217.
  34. ISBN 978-0-9804667-0-6
    . pp. 285–286.
  35. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8047-4518-5
    . p. 88.
  36. ^ Wordie, Jason (12 February 2013). "Then and now: ivory tower". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
  37. ^ "Clippings | Furniture & Lighting | from Inspiration to Installation". Open House Hong Kong. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
  38. ^ unknown. "Declared Monuments in Hong Kong: Government House". Antiquities and Monuments Office, Leisure and Cultural Services Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
  39. ^
    ISBN 978-962-209-671-4
    . p. 265.
  40. ^ "Hong Kong Filmography Volume II (1942–1949)". Hong Kong Film Archive. 2014. p. Preface. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  41. ^ "戰亂遭賣往內地一別70年 婆婆哭尋港父不求生聚望墓前了願". Apple Daily. 20 November 2013 [April 20, 2017].
  42. ^ "疏散船遇颶風 難民慘遭溺斃". The Kung Sheung Daily (工商日報). 14 January 1947.
  43. ISBN 9622321232.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  44. ^ "蘆洲（今稱螺洲）島上 骸骨纍纍". The Kung Sheung Daily News (香港工商日報). 15 January 1947.
  45. ^ "續審戰犯野間 中央警署人間地獄 憲查譚財追述情況 獄中死人逾百". The Kung Sheung Daily News. 7 January 1947. p. 3. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  46. ^ "第二次世界大战期间强掳华人做苦工". 金羊網. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  47. ^ "續審戰犯野間 死裡逃生之難民指證 強迫疏散空前慘劇 千萬難民葬身魚腹 荒島中哭聲震天赤柱亦可聞 *荒島難民慘叫 赤柱亦可聽聞". The Kung Sheung Daily News. 14 January 1947. p. 4.
  48. ^ a b 半塊肩章繫隔世父子情. Apple Daily (in Chinese). 4 April 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2016.
  49. ISBN 978-9888208715
    .
  50. ^ [2000] (2000). American Association for Chinese Studies publishing. American journal of Chinese studies, Volumes 8–9. p. 141.
  51. ^
    ISBN 978-9622097940
    .
  52. ISBN 978-9888208715
    .
  53. ^ Bailey, Steven K. (2017). "The Bombing of Bungalow C: Friendly Fire at the Stanley Civilian Internment Camp". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch. 57: 112.
  54. ^ Liu, Yujing (1 February 2018). "Why does Hong Kong have so many buried wartime bombs?". Retrieved 1 January 2019.
  55. ISBN 978-0-7656-0836-9
    . p. 246.
  56. ISBN 978-0-313-30743-0
    . p. 1876.
  57. ^ 正義的審判－－中國審判侵華日軍戰犯紀實 (in Chinese). Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 14 August 2005. Retrieved 22 August 2009.
  58. ISBN 978-0-521-62761-0
    .
  59. ^ "William Lore". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
  60. ISBN 0889203628
    .
  61. ^ Chan, Yannie (14 March 2016). "Why Were Chinese People Banned from The Peak?". The Loop HK. Retrieved 13 April 2022.

Sources and further reading

Websites

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Japanese occupation of Hong Kong.