Jawi script
Jawi جاوي | |
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Script type | |
Time period | c. 1300 CE to the present |
Direction | Right-to-left |
Languages |
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Related scripts | |
Parent systems | Nabataean
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Sister systems | Pegon script |
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Jawi (جاوي;
Jawi was developed from the
The ensuing trade expansions and the spread of Islam to other areas of Southeast Asia from the 15th century brought the Jawi alphabet beyond the traditional Malay-speaking world. Until the 20th century, Jawi was the standard script of the Malay language. The use of Jawi heralded the birth of traditional Malay literature, when it was featured prominently in the royal correspondences, religious texts and literary publications. With the arrival of Western influence through colonization and education, Jawi was relegated to scripts for religious education, with the Malay language eventually adopting the
Today, Jawi is one of the two official scripts in Brunei. In Malaysia, the position of Jawi is protected under Section 9 of the National Language Act 1963/1967, as it retains a degree of official use in religious and cultural administration. In some states, most notably Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang, Jawi attained the co-official script status, where businesses are mandated to adopt Jawi signage and billboards. Jawi is also used as an alternative script among Malay communities in Indonesia and Thailand.[2]
Until the early 20th century, there was no uniform spelling system for Jawi. The earliest orthographic reform to develop a standard spelling was in 1937 by The Malay Language and Johor Royal Literary Book Pact. This was followed by another reform by Za'aba published in 1949. The final major reform was in 1986 under the name 'Enhanced Guidelines of Jawi Spelling' which made Za'aba Spelling as its basis. Jawi can be typed using the Jawi keyboard.
Etymology
The word Jawi (جاوي) is a shorthand of the term in
According to
Early history
Prior to the onset of
At the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of
The oldest remains of Malay using the Jawi script have been found on the Terengganu Inscription Stone, dated 702 AH (1303 CE), nearly 600 years after the date of the first recorded existence of Arabic script in the region. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the "Sri Paduka Tuan" of Terengganu, urging his subjects to "extend and uphold" Islam and providing 10 basic Sharia laws for their guidance. This has attested the strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and the Malay world as a whole.[11]
The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was exclusively restricted to the nobility and monks in monasteries. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class. With the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings. Moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of written literature,
The spread and extent of Jawi script
The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, supplanting the earlier writing systems. The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the Quran. The use of Jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the region, alongside the spread of Islam.
Royal correspondences for example are written, embellished and ceremoniously delivered. Examples of royal correspondences still in the good condition are the letter between Sultan
Jawi today
Today, Jawi is one of the official scripts of
In Malaysia
In August 2019, the Malaysian Government's plans to introduce the teaching of Jawi at the most basic level in ethnic
The state government of Kedah in Malaysia has long defended the use of Jawi in the state.
Kuantan, the state capital of Pahang in Malaysia has introduced the usage of Jawi on all signage across the city from 1 August 2019.[29] This was done after a recommendation from the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who was then the Regent of Pahang, to uphold usage of the writing system.[30] The Pahang state government has since expanded the order and made it mandatory for every signage statewide including road signs to display Jawi alongside other scripts from 1 January 2020 after being delayed a few times.[31] Premises that fail to comply with this order will be fined up to a maximum of RM250, with the possibility of revocation of their business licences if they still do not comply afterwards.[32] In the early stage, usage of Jawi stickers are allowed to put on existing signage instead of replacing the whole signage.[33]
In Indonesia
Indonesia, having multiple regional and native languages, uses the Latin script for writing its
Letters
Name | Isolated | Final | Medial | Initial | Sound represented | Rumi equivalent | Notes | Unicode |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
alif اليف |
ا | ـا | /a/ or /ə/ | a, e- pepet (ĕ) | U+0627 | |||
ba باء |
ب | ـب | ـبـ | بـ | /b/ | b | U+0628 | |
ta تاء |
ت | ـت | ـتـ | تـ | /t/ | t | U+062A | |
ta marbutah تاء مربوطة |
ة | ـة | /t/ or /h/ | -t, -h | U+0629 | |||
sa (tha) ثاء |
ث | ـث | ـثـ | ثـ | /s/ or /θ/ | s | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+062B |
jim جيم |
ج | ـج | ـجـ | جـ | /d͡ʒ/ | j | U+062C | |
ca چا |
چ | ـچ | ـچـ | چـ | /t͡ʃ/ | c | Additional letter not present in Arabic | U+0686 |
ha حاء |
ح | ـح | ـحـ | حـ | /h/ or /ħ/ | h | Also known as ha kecil (حاء کچيل) or ha pedas (حاء ڤدس) | U+062D |
kha (khO) خاء |
خ | ـخ | ـخـ | خـ | /x/ | kh | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+062E |
dal دل |
د | ـد | /d/ | d | U+062F | |||
zal ذال |
ذ | ـذ | /z/ or /ð/ | z | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+0630 | ||
ra (rO) راء |
ر | ـر | /r/ | r | U+0631 | |||
zai زاي |
ز | ـز | /z/ | z | U+0632 | |||
sin سين |
س | ـس | ـسـ | سـ | /s/ | s | U+0633 | |
syin شين |
ش | ـش | ـشـ | شـ | /ʃ/ | sy, sh | U+0634 | |
sad (sOd) صاد |
ص | ـص | ـصـ | صـ | /s/ | s | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+0635 |
dad (dOd) ضاد |
ض | ـض | ـضـ | ضـ | /d/ | d | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+0636 |
ta (tO) طاء |
ط | ـط | ـطـ | طـ | /t/ | t | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+0637 |
za (zO) ظاء |
ظ | ـظ | ـظـ | ظـ | /z/ | z | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+0638 |
ain عين |
ع | ـع | ـعـ | عـ | /ʔ/ | a, i, u, -k | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+0639 |
ghain غين |
غ | ـغ | ـغـ | غـ | /ɣ/ | gh | Mainly used in Arabic loanwords | U+063A |
nga ڠا |
ڠ | ـڠ | ـڠـ | ڠـ | /ŋ/ | ng | Additional letter not present in Arabic | U+06A0 |
fa فاء |
ف | ـف | ـفـ | فـ | /f/ | f | U+0641 | |
pa ڤا |
ڤ | ـڤ | ـڤـ | ڤـ | /p/ | p | Additional letter not present in Arabic | U+06A4 |
qaf قاف |
ق | ـق | ـقـ | قـ | /q/ or /k/ | q, k | U+0642 | |
kaf کاف |
ک | ـک | ـکـ | کـ | /k/ | k | U+06A9 | |
ga ݢا |
ݢ | ـݢ | ـݢـ | ݢـ | /ɡ/ | g | Additional letter not present in Arabic | U+0762 |
lam لام |
ل | ـل | ـلـ | لـ | /l/ | l | U+0644 | |
mim ميم |
م | ـم | ـمـ | مـ | /m/ | m | U+0645 | |
nun نون |
ن | ـن | ـنـ | نـ | /n/ | n | U+0646 | |
wau واو |
و | ـو | /w/ and /u, o, ɔ/ | w, u, o | U+0648 | |||
va ۏا |
ۏ | ـۏ | /v/ | v | Additional letter not present in Arabic | U+06CF | ||
ha هاء |
ه | ـه | ـهـ | هـ | /h/ | h | Also known as ha besar (هاء بسر) or ha simpul (هاء سيمڤول) | U+0647 |
hamzah همزة |
ء | ء | /ʔ/ | ∅ | U+0621 | |||
ya ياء |
ي | ـي | ـيـ | يـ | /j/ and /i, e, ɛ/ | y, i, e taling (é) | U+064A | |
ye يى |
ى | ـى | /ə, a/ | -e pepet (ĕ), a | Also known as alif maqsurah (الف مقصورة) | U+0649 | ||
nya ڽا |
ڽ | ـڽ | ـڽـ | ڽـ | /ɲ/ | ny | Additional letter not present in Arabic | U+06BD |
- Letters with no initial and middle forms adopt either isolated or final form, because they cannot be joined with suffixing letter. (ا, د, ذ, ر, ز, و, ۏ)
- The letter hamzah may also appear in its [e]
Spelling
Modern Jawi spelling is based on the Daftar Kata Bahasa Melayu (DKBM): Rumi-Sebutan-Jawi dictionary. Older texts may use different spellings for some words.[38] Nonetheless, even different modern sources[39] may use different spelling conventions; they may differ especially in the usage of the matres lectionis (alif "ا", wau "و" and ya "ي") and the hamzah tiga suku "ء", as well as in the spelling of vowels and consonant clusters in loanwords from English.[citation needed] One source[40] tends to use the following conventions;[41] there are numerous exceptions to them nonetheless.
- Arabicoften keep their original spellings.
- The letters sa "ث", ha "ح", kha "خ", zal "ذ", sad "ص", dad "ض", ta "ط", za "ظ", ain "ع", ghain "غ", ta marbutah "ة" are mostly used to spell Arabic loanwords, e.g. Selasa "ثلاث", huruf "حروف", khabar "خبر", fasal "فصل", darurat "ضرورة", talak "طلاق", zohor "ظهر", saat "ساعة", ghaib "غيب", sunat "سنة", khasiat " خصية". The letter va "ۏ" is mostly used to spell English loanwords, e.g. universiti "اونيۏرسيتي". The letters zai "ز", syin "ش", fa "ف", ye "ى" are mostly used to spell loanwords from English, Arabic or Dutch, e.g. zoo "زو", zapin "زاڤين", syif "شيف", syukur "شکور", filem "فيلم", fakir "فقير", nasionalisme "ناسيوناليسمى", takwa "تقوى".
- Rumi x used to spell loanwords from English may be spelled using different Jawi letters, depending on pronunciation, e.g. kaf-sin "کس" in X-ray "ايکس-راي", zai "ز" in xenon "زينون".
- The letter syin "ش" is also used to represent "sh" especially for words derived from Classical Malaylanguage, e.g. "مهاريشي" maharishi; and loanwords, e.g. "شيرڤا" Sherpa.
- Native Malay root morphemes with Rumi k in the syllable coda are glottal stops (pronounced [ʔ]) and are written with qaf "ق", e.g. tengok "تيڠوق", laksa, "لقسا", baiklah "باءيقله", kotakku "کوتقکو", kotakmu "کوتقمو". Loanwords where the Rumi k is derived from Western languages are spelled with kaf: the initial and medial forms use the glyph "ک" e.g. klinik "کلينيک", teksi "تيکسي" whereas the final <k> form can be either "ک" or "ك" as in the variant spelling of klinik "کلينيك", the latter glyph is often found in old signboards.
- The letter fa "ف" was historically used to represent /p/ (Jawi: pa "ڤ") and such usage may still be found in archaic Jawi spellings. This is because /f/ is a non-native consonant in Malay found only in loanwords and in the past was often approximated as a /p/.
- Though there are exceptions,[a] vowels and diphthongs tend to be spelled this way:
IPA | First letter of a root morpheme | Middle of a root morpheme, in an open syllable | Middle of a root morpheme, in a closed syllable | Last letter of a root morpheme | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rumi | Jawi | Rumi | Jawi | Rumi | Jawi | Rumi | Jawi | ||
/a/, [ə] in open final syllables of root morphemes, or in the penult if followed by /h/ e.g. in usaha | Spelling | a | ا[b] | a | ـا[b] | a | ـا or omitted[b][c] | a | ـا or omitted[b][c] |
Example | abu | ابو | cari | چاري | sampan, wang | سمڤن, واڠ | cuba, hanya | چوبا, هاڽ | |
/e/ mostly, /ɛ/ in some words, i.e. e-taling | Spelling | e (é ) |
ايـ[b] | e (é) | ـيـ[b] | e (é) | ـيـ[b] | e (é) | ـي[b] |
Example | ekor | ايکور | tengok | تيڠوق | rendang | ريندڠ | sate | ساتي | |
/ə/, i.e. e-pepet | Spelling | e (ĕ) |
ا[b] | e (ĕ) | (omitted)[b] | e (ĕ) | (omitted)[b] | e (ĕ) | ـى, [b]ـا[d] |
Example | empat | امڤت | bersih | برسيه | sempit | سمڤيت | nasionalisme, memetabolismekan | ناسيوناليسمى, ممتابوليسماکن | |
/i/, [e] in closed final syllables of root morphemes | Spelling | i | ايـ[b] | i | ـيـ[b] | i | ـيـ[b] | i | ـي |
Example | ibu | ايبو | tiga | تيݢ | hampir | همڤير | kiri | کيري | |
/o/ mostly, /ɔ/ in some words | Spelling | o | او[b] | o | ـو[b] | o | ـو[b] | o | ـو[b] |
Example | obor | اوبور | bola | بولا | esok | ايسوق | soto | سوتو | |
/u/, [o] in closed final syllables of root morphemes | Spelling | u | او[b] | u | ـو[b] | u | ـو[b] | u | ـو[b] |
Example | ubi | اوبي | rugi | روݢي | tun | تون | biru | بيرو | |
/ai̯/ | Spelling | ai | اءيـ[e] | ai | ـايـ | ai | ـاءيـ | ai | ـاي |
Example | aiskrim | اءيسکريم | baiduri | بايدوري | sait | ساءيت | ramai | راماي | |
/au̯/ | Spelling | au | اءو[e] | au | ـاو | au | ـاءو | au | ـاو |
Example | aur | اءور | sauna | ساونا | taun | تاءون | pulau | ڤولاو | |
/oi̯/ | Spelling | oi | اوويـ | oi | ـويـ | oi | ـوءيـ | oi | ـوي |
Example | oidium | اوويديوم | boikot | بويکوت | eksploit | ايکسڤلوءيت | sepoi | سڤوي |
- ^a When spelling vowels, there are many exceptions to the conventions stated above and below. Common exceptions include ada "اد", di "د", dia "دي" dan "دان", ia "اي", jika "جک", juga "جوݢ", lima "ليم", ke "ک", kita "کيت", mereka "مريک", ini "اين", itu "ايت", pada "ڤد", suka "سوک" and tiga "تيݢ".
- homographsin Jawi, e.g. sembilan and sambilan are both "سمبيلن", markah and merekah are both "مرکه", sesi and sisi are both "سيسي", biro and biru are both "بيرو", borong and burung are both "بوروڠ", golong and gulung are both "ݢولوڠ".
- ^c Using or omitting alif "ا" when representing /a/ in closed syllables and in the last letter of a root morpheme:
- However, it is usually not omitted in monosyllabic words that start with wau "و", e.g. wau "واو", wap "واڤ", wang "واڠ".
- It is also usually not omitted in root morphemes which first syllable is open and contains /e/ and which second syllable is closed and begins with /wa/, e.g. words with a /Ce.waC/ structure (where each C is a consonant) like lewah "ليواه", mewah "ميواه", dewan "ديوان", tewas " تيواس", rewang " ريواڠ", gewang "ݢواڠ", sewat "سيوات", kelewang "کليواڠ", kedewas "کديواس", dewangga "ديواڠݢ".
- Final alif "ا" is generally kept to represent /a/ [ə] at the end of a word.
- However, in native Malay disyllabic root morphemes with the form /Ca.C*a/ [Ca.C*ə], where /C*/ is any of the following 12 consonants ba "ب", ta "ت", pa "ڤ", sin "س", ga "ݢ", nun "ن", nya "ڽ", ca "چ", kaf "ک", jim "ج", mim "م", ya "ی" (mnemonic: betapa segannya cik jam "بتاڤ سݢنڽ چيق جم"), final alif "ا" is not written, e.g. raba "راب", mata "مات", sapa "ساڤ", rasa "راس", raga "راݢ", mana "مان", hanya "هاڽ", baca "باچ", raya "راي", baka "باک", raja "راج", nama "نام", sama "سام".
- Some native Malay trisyllabic root morphemes ending with /a/ [ə], with three open syllables and which include the abovementioned 12 consonants, may also omit the final alif "ا".
- ^d As the final letter of a word, root morpheme-final /ə/ that is spelled with e in Rumi may be represented by ye "ى" in Jawi. In the middle of a word, root morpheme-final /ə/ that is spelled with e in Rumi may be represented by alif "ا" in Jawi instead, e.g. fatwa "فتوى" → memfatwakan "ممفتواکن", metabolisme "ميتابوليسمى" → memetabolismekan "ممتابوليسماکن".
- ^e The hamzah may be used to spell some diphthongs. Sources differ as to whether and when it should be on the line "ء", or placed above the previous mater lectionis, such as in alif with hamzah above "أ", or even if it should be used at all in some words.
- Furthermore, it may be used to represent a hiatus, or a glottal stop [ʔ], especially when (but not limited to) separating vowels at the boundary of a root morpheme and an affix, e.g. dato' "داتوء", baik "باءيق", mulai "مولاءي", bau "باءو", daun "داءون", laut "لاءوت", peperiksaan "ڤڤريقساءن", kemerdekaan "کمرديکاءن", diambil "دأمبيل", dielakkan "دأيلقکن", diertikan "دأرتيکن", diikuti "دأيکوتي", diolah "دأوله", diutamakan "دأوتاماکن", keadaan "کأداءن", keempat "کأمڤت", keindahan "کأيندهن", keupayaan "کأوڤاياءن", seakan-akan "سأکن-اکن", seekor "سأيکور", seorang "سأورڠ", e-mel "إي-ميل", eh! "إيه!", ateisme "اتيئيسمى", diet "ديئت".
- Arabic numerals are the preferred form for writing numerals in Jawi script, Eastern Arabic numerals are generally not used (except when indicating plural words, i.e. askar-askar = "عسکر٢").
Arabic numerals | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
---|
- Full reduplication of a base word is represented with the numeral "٢", e.g. anak-anak "انق٢", while the suffixed reduplication of a base word is represented with the hyphen "-", e.g. berhati-hati "برهاتي-هاتي", sayur-sayuran "سايور-سايورن", and gunung-ganang "ݢونوڠ-ݢانڠ".
- Punctuation marks used in written Jawi are as follows:
Punctuation mark | Malay name | Rumi | Jawi | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Rumi | Jawi | |||
Comma | Tanda koma | تندا کوما | , | ⹁ |
Semicolon | Tanda koma bertitik | تندا کوما برتيتيق | ; | ⁏ |
Question mark | Tanda soal | تندا سوءال | ? | ؟ |
Examples
Akin to the Arabic script, Jawi is constructed from right-to-left. Below is an exemplification of the Jawi script extracted from the first and second verse of the notable Ghazal untuk Rabiah, غزال اونتوق ربيعة (English: A Ghazal for Rabiah).[42]
Jawi script | Rumi script | English translation |
---|---|---|
کيلاون اينتن برکليڤ-کليڤ دلاڠيت تيڠݢي⹁ |
Kilauan intan berkelip-kelip di langit tinggi, |
The glimmer of gems twinkling in the lofty sky, |
References
- ^ Winstedt, Richard Olaf (1961), "Malay Chronicles from Sumatra and Malaya", Historians of South-East Asia of Historical Writing on the Peoples of Asia, 2: 24
- ISBN 978-0-19-926748-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-602-391-657-3.
Sementara itu, bangsa Arab menyebut tanah air kita dengan Jazair al-Jawi (Kepulauan Jawa)
- ISBN 978-979-22-5814-1.
- ^ Kridalaksana, Harimurti (2001). Wiwara: Pengantar Bahasa dan Kebudayaan Jawa (in Indonesian). Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
- ISBN 978-981-229-594-1.
- ^ a b "Jawi II". Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu. 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
- ^ "Masuk Jawi". Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu. 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
- ^ "Jawi Pekan". Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu. 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
- ^ "Laksamana Wanita Abad Ke-16/17 M Bernama Meurah Meukuta Bergelar Orangkaya Kapai Laksamana". Retrieved 11 May 2022.
- ^ Universiti Malaya. Archivedfrom the original on 13 July 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ISBN 967-61-1809-5.
- ISBN 0-87727-517-3. 480 pages.
- ISBN 0-253-32000-3.
- ^ ISBN 978-983-068-517-5.
- ISBN 978-983-70-1054-3.
- ISBN 978-90-04-23397-3
- ISBN 983-52-0276-1
- ^ a b "An overview of Jawi's origin in Brunei". Brunei Times. 16 July 2007. Archived from the original on 24 May 2013.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7123-0376-7.
- ^ Babulal, Veena (14 August 2019). "Teaching of Jawi in vernacular schools to proceed, subject to PTA consent". New Straits Times. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
- Channel News Asia. 5 August 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
- ^ Sukumaran, Tashny (24 December 2019). "Chinese dissent in Malaysia over Jawi script in schools raises alarm in Mahathir's government". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
- Channel News Asia. 27 December 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
- ^ "The prawn behind the rock: Enthusiasm for an archaic script frightens Malaysia's minorities". The Economist. No. 11 January 2020. 9 January 2020. p. 32. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
- ^ a b "Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards". The Star. 26 August 2008. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- ^ a b c d Hashim, Roslinda (21 December 2019). "Kedah galak papan iklan tulisan jawi". Sinar Harian. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- ^ a b Mohd Noor Aswad (2 September 2019). "Kedah supports use of Jawi in official dealings". New Straits Times. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- ^ Tajuddin, Siti Insyirah (18 April 2019). "Kuantan to introduce Jawi signages from Aug 1". New Straits Times. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ Lim, Ida (26 November 2018). "Kuantan to use Jawi in road signs from 2019". Malay Mail. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ "No extension for use of Jawi on signage in Pahang". The Star. 23 December 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ "Pahang govt: Firm action to be taken against business premise owners who fail to use jawi signage". Malay Mail. 31 December 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ Alagesh, T.N. (7 January 2020). "Jawi signage in Pahang: Stickers allowed, for now". New Straits Times. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ a b (in Indonesian) TULISAN ARAB MELAYU BAGIAN DARI KHAZANAH BUDAYA RIAU.
- ^ Bagian Kesenian Bara Ai Kesusasteraan Indonesia Catatan-Catatan Tentang Amir Hamza:Bagian Kesenian Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Yogyakarta: 1955.
- ^ "Peraturan Gubernur Riau Nomor 46 Tahun 2018 Tentang Penerapan Muatan Budaya Melayu Riau Di Ruang Umum". Governor Regulation No. 46 of 2018 (PDF) (in Indonesian). Governor of Riau Province.
- ^ Daftar Kata Bahasa Melayu Rumi-Sebutan-Jawi, Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, 5th printing, 2006.
- ^ Che Wan Shamsul Bahri bin Che Wan Ahmad; Khairuddin bin Omar; Mohammad Faidzul bin Nasrudin; Mohd Zamri bin Murah; Khirulnizam Abd Rahman. "Comparative Study Between Old and Modern Jawi Spelling: Case Study on Kitab Hidayah al-Salikin". Researchgate.net. K. Abd Rahman. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
- ^ such as "Portal Rasmi Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia". Nota Klinik Jawi Peringkat Lanjutan 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
- ^ "Jawi @ Arabic Converter". Ejawi.net. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
- ^ "Klinik Jawi di Radio IKIM.fm – Tutorial". Ejawi.net. Archived from the original on 9 June 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
- ^ "lirik lagu". www.liriklagu.com. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
Further reading
- Hudson, Herbert Henry (1892). The Malay orthography. Singapore: Kelly & Walsh.
- H.S. Paterson (& C.O. Blagden), 'An early Malay Inscription from 14th-century Terengganu', Journ. Mal. Br.R.A.S., II, 1924, pp. 258–263.
- R.O. Winstedt, A History of Malaya, revised ed. 1962, p. 40.
- De Casparis, J. G. (29 November 1975). Indonesian Paleography. BRILL. pp. 70–71. ISBN 9004041729.