American Jews
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Jews and Judaism |
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American Jews or Jewish Americans are
During the colonial era
Depending on religious definitions and varying population data, the United States has the largest or second largest Jewish community in the world, after
History
Jews were present in the
For the first time, the English
Despite the fact that some of them were denied the right to vote or hold office in local jurisdictions, Sephardi Jews became active in community affairs in the 1790s, after they were granted political equality in the five states where they were most numerous.
Jewish migration to the United States increased dramatically in the early 1880s, as a result of persecution and economic difficulties in parts of Eastern Europe. Most of these new immigrants were
At the beginning of the 20th century, these newly arrived Jews built support networks consisting of many small synagogues and Landsmanshaften (German and Yiddish for "Countryman Associations") for Jews from the same town or village. American Jewish writers of the time urged assimilation and integration into the wider American culture, and Jews quickly became part of American life. Approximately 500,000 American Jews (or half of all Jewish males between 18 and 50) fought in World War II, and after the war younger families joined the new trend of suburbanization. There, Jews became increasingly assimilated and demonstrated rising intermarriage. The suburbs facilitated the formation of new centers, as Jewish school enrollment more than doubled between the end of World War II and the mid-1950s, while synagogue affiliation jumped from 20% in 1930 to 60% in 1960; the fastest growth came in Reform and, especially, Conservative congregations.[18] More recent waves of Jewish emigration from Russia and other regions have largely joined the mainstream American Jewish community.
Americans of Jewish descent have been successful in many fields and aspects over the years.[19][20] The Jewish community in America has gone from being part of the lower class of society, with numerous employments barred to them,[21] to being a group with a high concentrations in members of the academia and a per capita income higher than the average in the United States.[22][23][24]
< $30,000 | $30,000–49,999 | $50,000–99,999 | $100,000+ |
---|---|---|---|
16% | 15% | 24% | 44% |
Self-identity
Scholars debate whether the historical experience of Jews in the United States has been such a unique experience as to validate American exceptionalism.[26]
Korelitz (1996) shows how American Jews during the late 19th and early 20th centuries abandoned a
Siporin (1990) uses the family
After 1960, memories of
Politics
Election year |
Candidate of the Democratic Party |
% of Jewish vote to the Democratic Party |
Result of the Democratic Party |
---|---|---|---|
1916 | Woodrow Wilson | 55 | Won |
1920 | James M. Cox | 19 | Lost |
1924 | John W. Davis | 51 | Lost |
1928 | Al Smith
|
72 | Lost |
1932 | Franklin D. Roosevelt | 82 | Won |
1936 | 85 | Won | |
1940 | 90 | Won | |
1944 | 90 | Won | |
1948 | Harry Truman
|
75 | Won |
1952 | Adlai Stevenson | 64 | Lost |
1956 | 60 | Lost | |
1960 | John F. Kennedy | 82 | Won |
1964 | Lyndon B. Johnson | 90 | Won |
1968 | Hubert Humphrey | 81 | Lost |
1972 | George McGovern | 65 | Lost |
1976 | Jimmy Carter | 71 | Won |
1980 | 45 | Lost | |
1984 | Walter Mondale | 67 | Lost |
1988 | Michael Dukakis | 64 | Lost |
1992 | Bill Clinton | 80 | Won |
1996 | 78 | Won | |
2000 | Al Gore | 79 | Lost |
2004 | John Kerry | 76 | Lost |
2008 | Barack Obama | 78 | Won |
2012 | 69 | Won | |
2016 | Hillary Clinton | 71[33] | Lost |
2020 | Joe Biden | 69[34] | Won |
Election year |
Candidate of the Republican Party |
% of Jewish vote to the Republican Party |
Result of the Republican Party |
---|---|---|---|
1916 | Charles E. Hughes | 45 | Lost |
1920 | Warren G. Harding | 43 | Won |
1924 | Calvin Coolidge | 27 | Won |
1928 | Herbert Hoover | 28 | Won |
1932 | 18 | Lost | |
1936 | Alf Landon | 15 | Lost |
1940 | Wendell Willkie | 10 | Lost |
1944 | Thomas Dewey
|
10 | Lost |
1948 | 10 | Lost | |
1952 | Dwight D. Eisenhower | 36 | Won |
1956 | 40 | Won | |
1960 | Richard Nixon | 18 | Lost |
1964 | Barry Goldwater | 10 | Lost |
1968 | Richard Nixon | 17 | Won |
1972 | 35 | Won | |
1976 | Gerald Ford | 27 | Lost |
1980 | Ronald Reagan | 39 | Won |
1984 | 31 | Won | |
1988 | George H. W. Bush | 35 | Won |
1992 | 11 | Lost | |
1996 | Bob Dole | 16 | Lost |
2000 | George W. Bush | 19 | Won |
2004 | 24 | Won | |
2008 | John McCain | 22 | Lost |
2012 | Mitt Romney | 30 | Lost |
2016 | Donald Trump | 24[33] | Won |
2020 | 30[34] | Lost |
In New York City, while the German-Jewish community was well established 'uptown', the more numerous Jews who migrated from Eastern Europe faced tension 'downtown' with Irish and German Catholic neighbors, especially the Irish Catholics who controlled Democratic Party Politics
While earlier Jewish immigrants from Germany tended to be politically
Although American Jews generally leaned Republican in the second half of the 19th century, the majority has voted Democratic since at least 1916, when they voted 55% for Woodrow Wilson.[32]
With the election of
During the 1952 and 1956 elections, Jewish voters cast 60% or more of their votes for Democrat
During the Nixon re-election campaign of 1972, Jewish voters were apprehensive about George McGovern and only favored the Democrat by 65%, while Nixon more than doubled Republican Jewish support to 35%. In the election of 1976, Jewish voters supported Democrat Jimmy Carter by 71% over incumbent president Gerald Ford's 27%, but during the Carter re-election campaign of 1980, Jewish voters greatly abandoned the Democrat, with only 45% support, while Republican winner Ronald Reagan garnered 39%, and 14% went to independent (former Republican) John Anderson.[32][40]
During the Reagan re-election campaign of 1984, the Republican retained 31% of the Jewish vote, while 67% voted for Democrat Walter Mondale. The 1988 election saw Jewish voters favor Democrat Michael Dukakis by 64%, while George H. W. Bush polled a respectable 35%, but during Bush's re-election attempt in 1992, his Jewish support dropped to just 11%, with 80% voting for Bill Clinton and 9% going to independent Ross Perot. Clinton's re-election campaign in 1996 maintained high Jewish support at 78%, with 16% supporting Bob Dole and 3% for Perot.[32][40]
In the 2000 presidential election, Joe Lieberman became the first American Jew to run for national office on a major-party ticket when he was chosen as Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore's vice-presidential nominee. The elections of 2000 and 2004 saw continued Jewish support for Democrats Al Gore and John Kerry, a Catholic, remain in the high- to mid-70% range, while Republican George W. Bush's re-election in 2004 saw Jewish support rise from 19% to 24%.[40][41]
In the 2008 presidential election, 78% of Jews voted for Barack Obama, who became the first African American to be elected president.[42] Additionally, 83% of white Jews voted for Obama compared to just 34% of white Protestants and 47% of white Catholics, though 67% of those identifying with another religion and 71% identifying with no religion also voted Obama.[43]
In the February
For congressional and senate races, since 1968, American Jews have voted about 70–80% for Democrats;[45] this support increased to 87% for Democratic House candidates during the 2006 elections.[46]
The first American Jew to serve in the Senate was David Levy Yulee, who was Florida's first Senator, serving 1845–1851 and again 1855–1861.
There were 19 Jews among the 435 U.S. Representatives at the start of the
As of January 2014[update], there were five openly gay men serving in Congress and two are Jewish: Jared Polis of Colorado and David Cicilline of Rhode Island.[citation needed]
In November 2008, Cantor was elected as the
In 2013, Pew found that 70% of American Jews identified with or leaned toward the Democratic Party, with just 22% identifying with or leaning toward the Republican Party.[50]
The
In the 118th Congress, there are 28 Jewish U.S. Representatives.[53] 25 are Democrats and the other 3 are Republicans. All 10 Jewish Senators are Democrats.[54]
Additionally, 6 members of President Joe Biden's cabinet are Jewish (Secretary of State Antony Blinken, Attorney General Merrick Garland, DNI Avril Haines, White House Chief of Staff Ron Klain, Homeland Security Secretary Alejandro Mayorkas, and Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen).[55]
Participation in civil rights movements
Members of the American Jewish community have included prominent participants in
Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish Congress, stated the following when he spoke from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial during the famous March on Washington on August 28, 1963: "As Jews we bring to this great demonstration, in which thousands of us proudly participate, a twofold experience—one of the spirit and one of our history. ... From our Jewish historic experience of three and a half thousand years we say: Our ancient history began with slavery and the yearning for freedom. During the Middle Ages my people lived for a thousand years in the ghettos of Europe. ... It is for these reasons that it is not merely sympathy and compassion for the black people of America that motivates us. It is, above all and beyond all such sympathies and emotions, a sense of complete identification and solidarity born of our own painful historic experience."[56][57]
The Holocaust
During the World War II period, the American Jewish community was bitterly and deeply divided and as a result, it was unable to form a united front. Most Jews who had previously emigrated to the United States from Eastern Europe supported Zionism, because they believed that a return to their ancestral homeland was the only solution to the persecution and the genocide which were then occurring across Europe. One important development was the sudden conversion of many American Jewish leaders to Zionism late in the war.[58] The Holocaust was largely ignored by American media as it was happening. Reporters and editors largely did not believe the stories of atrocities which were coming out of Europe.[59]
The Holocaust had a profound impact on the Jewish community in the United States, especially after 1960 as Holocaust education improved, as Jews tried to comprehend what had happened during it, and especially as they tried to commemorate it and grapple with it when they looked to the future. Abraham Joshua Heschel summarized this dilemma when he attempted to understand Auschwitz: "To try to answer is to commit a supreme blasphemy. Israel enables us to bear the agony of Auschwitz without radical despair, to sense a ray [of] God's radiance in the jungles of history."[60]
International affairs
This attention was based on a natural affinity toward and support for Israel in the Jewish community. The attention is also because of the ensuing and unresolved conflicts regarding the founding of Israel and the role for the Zionist movement going forward. A lively internal debate commenced, following the
In opposition to Oslo, an alliance of conservative groups, such as the
Demographics
As of 2020, the American Jewish population is, depending on the method of identification, either the largest in the world, or the second-largest in the world (after Israel).
Precise population figures vary depending on whether Jews are accounted for based on
According to Gallup and Pew Research Center findings, "at maximum 2.2% of the U.S. adult population has some basis for Jewish self-identification."[67]
In 2020, it was estimated by demographers
In 2012, demographers estimated the core American Jewish population (including religious and non-religious) to be 5,425,000 (or 1.73% of the US population in 2012), citing methodological failures in the previous higher estimates.[70] Other sources say the number is around 6.5 million.
The American Jewish Yearbook population survey had placed the number of American Jews at 6.4 million, or approximately 2.1% of the total population. This figure is significantly higher than the previous large scale survey estimate, conducted by the 2000–2001 National Jewish Population estimates, which estimated 5.2 million Jews. A 2007 study released by the
The population of Americans of Jewish descent is demographically characterized by an aging population composition and low fertility rates significantly below generational replacement.[70]
The National Jewish Population Survey of 1990 asked 4.5 million adult Jews to identify their denomination. The national total showed 38% were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish."[77] In 2013, Pew Research's Jewish population survey found that 35% of American Jews identified as Reform, 18% as Conservative, 10% as Orthodox, 6% who identified with other sects, and 30% did not identify with a denomination.[78] Pew's 2020 poll found that 37% affiliated with Reform Judaism, 17% with Conservative Judaism, and 9% with Orthodox Judaism. Young Jews are more likely to identify as Orthodox or as unaffiliated compared to older members of the Jewish community.[6]
Many Jews are concentrated in the Northeast, particularly around New York City. Many Jews also live in South Florida, Los Angeles and other large metropolitan areas, like Chicago, San Francisco, or Atlanta. The metropolitan areas of New York City, Los Angeles, and Miami contain nearly one quarter of the world's Jews[79] and the New York City metropolitan area itself contains around a quarter of all Jews living in the United States.
By state
According to a study published by demographers and sociologists Ira M. Sheskin and Arnold Dashefsky in the American Jewish Yearbook, the distribution of the Jewish population in 2020 was as follows:[68][69]
States and territories | American Jews (2020)[68] | % Jewish[a][69] |
---|---|---|
Alabama | 10,325 | 0.21% |
Alaska | 5,750 | 0.78% |
Arizona | 106,300 | 1.49% |
Arkansas | 2,225 | 0.07% |
California | 1,187,990 | 3.00% |
Colorado | 103,020 | 1.78% |
Connecticut | 118,350 | 3.28% |
Delaware | 15,100 | 1.53% |
District of Columbia | 57,300 | 7.81% |
Florida | 657,095 | 3.05% |
Georgia | 128,720 | 1.20% |
Hawaii | 7,100 | 0.49% |
Idaho | 2,125 | 0.12% |
Illinois | 297,735 | 2.32% |
Indiana | 25,145 | 0.37% |
Iowa | 5,475 | 0.17% |
Kansas | 17,425 | 0.59% |
Kentucky | 12,500 | 0.28% |
Louisiana | 14,900 | 0.32% |
Maine | 13,890 | 1.02% |
Maryland | 238,600 | 3.86% |
Massachusetts | 293,080 | 4.17% |
Michigan | 87,905 | 0.87% |
Minnesota | 65,900 | 1.15% |
Mississippi | 1,525 | 0.05% |
Missouri | 64,275 | 1.04% |
Montana | 1,495 | 0.14% |
Nebraska | 9,350 | 0.48% |
Nevada | 76,300 | 2.46% |
New Hampshire | 10,120 | 0.73% |
New Jersey | 546,950 | 5.89% |
New Mexico | 12,625 | 0.60% |
New York | 1,772,470 | 8.77% |
North Carolina | 45,935 | 0.44% |
North Dakota | 400 | 0.05% |
Ohio | 151,615 | 1.28% |
Oklahoma | 4,425 | 0.11% |
Oregon | 40,650 | 0.96% |
Pennsylvania | 434,165 | 3.34% |
Rhode Island | 18,750 | 1.71% |
South Carolina | 13,820 | 0.27% |
South Dakota | 250 | 0.03% |
Tennessee | 22,800 | 0.33% |
Texas | 176,000 | 0.60% |
Utah | 5,650 | 0.17% |
Vermont | 5,985 | 0.93% |
Virginia | 150,955 | 1.75% |
Washington | 73,350 | 0.95% |
West Virginia | 2,310 | 0.13% |
Wisconsin | 33,455 | 0.57% |
Wyoming | 1,150 | 0.20% |
Total | 7,153,065 | 2.10% |
Significant Jewish population centers
Rank | Metro area | Number of Jews | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
(WJC)[79] | (ARDA)[80] | (WJC) | (ASARB) | |
1 | 1 | New York City | 1,750,000 | 2,028,200 |
2 | 3 | Miami
|
535,000 | 337,000 |
3 | 2 | Los Angeles
|
490,000 | 662,450 |
4 | 4 | Philadelphia | 254,000 | 285,950 |
5 | 6 | Chicago | 248,000 | 265,400 |
8 | 8 | San Francisco Bay Area | 210,000 | 218,700 |
6 | 7 | Boston | 208,000 | 261,100 |
8 | 5 | Baltimore–Washington
|
165,000 | 276,445 |
Rank | State | Percent Jewish |
---|---|---|
1 | New York | 8.91 |
2 | New Jersey | 5.86 |
3 | District of Columbia | 4.25 |
4 | Massachusetts | 4.07 |
5 | Maryland | 3.99 |
6 | Florida | 3.28 |
7 | Connecticut | 3.28 |
8 | California | 3.18 |
9 | Nevada | 2.69 |
10 | Illinois | 2.31 |
11 | Pennsylvania | 2.29 |
Although the
The phenomenon of Israeli migration to the U.S. is often termed
- The
According to the 2001 undertaking[87] of the National Jewish Population Survey, 4.3 million American Jews have some sort of strong connection to the Jewish community, whether religious or cultural.
Distribution of Jewish Americans
According to the North American Jewish Data Bank[88] the 104 counties and independent cities as of 2011[update] with the largest Jewish communities, as a percentage of population, were:
Assimilation and population changes
These parallel themes have facilitated the extraordinary economic, political, and social success of the American Jewish community, but also have contributed to widespread cultural assimilation.[89] More recently however, the propriety and degree of assimilation has also become a significant and controversial issue within the modern American Jewish community, with both political and religious skeptics.[90]
While not all Jews disapprove of
A third of intermarried couples provide their children with a Jewish upbringing, and doing so is more common among intermarried families raising their children in areas with high Jewish populations.[94] The Boston area, for example, is exceptional in that an estimated 60% of children of intermarriages are being raised Jewish, meaning that intermarriage would actually be contributing to a net increase in the number of Jews.[95] As well, some children raised through intermarriage rediscover and embrace their Jewish roots when they themselves marry and have children.
In contrast to the ongoing trends of assimilation, some communities within American Jewry, such as
About half of the American Jews are considered to be religious. Out of this 2,831,000 religious Jewish population, 92% are
Race and ethnicity
The United States Census Bureau classifies most American Jews as white.[100] Jewish people are culturally diverse and may be of any race, ethnicity, or national origin. Many Jews have culturally assimilated into and are phenotypically indistinguishable from the dominant local populations of regions like Europe, the Caucasus and the Crimea, North Africa, West Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, South, East, and Central Asia, and the Americas where they have lived for many centuries.[101][102][103] Most American Jews are Ashkenazi Jews who descend from Jewish populations of Central and Eastern Europe and are considered white unless they are Ashkenazi Jews of color.[citation needed] Many American Jews identify themselves as being both Jewish and white, while many solely identify as Jewish, resisting this identification.[104] Several commentators have observed that "many American Jews retain a feeling of ambivalence about whiteness".[105] Karen Brodkin explains this ambivalence as rooted in anxieties about the potential loss of Jewish identity, especially outside of intellectual elites.[106] Similarly, Kenneth Marcus observes a number of ambivalent cultural phenomena which have also been noted by other scholars, and he concludes that "the veneer of whiteness has not established conclusively the racial construction of American Jews".[107] The relationship between Jewish identity and white majority identity continues to be described as "complicated" for many American Jews, particularly Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews of European descent. The issue of Jewish whiteness may be different for many Mizrahi, Sephardi, Black, Asian, and Latino Jews, many of whom may never be considered white by society.[108] Many American white nationalists and white supremacists view all Jews as non-white, even if they are of European descent.[109] Some white nationalists believe that Jews can be white and a small number of white nationalists are Jewish.[110]
In 2013, the Pew Research Center's Portrait of Jewish Americans found that more than 90% of Jews who responded to its survey described themselves as being non-Hispanic whites, 2% described themselves as being black, 3% described themselves as being Hispanic, and 2% described themselves as having other racial or ethnic backgrounds.[111]
Jews by race or ethnicity
Asian-American Jews
According to the Pew Research Center, fewer than 1% of American Jews in 2020 identified as Asian Americans. Around 1% of religious Jews identified as Asian-American.[112]
A small but growing community of around 350
Jews of European descent
Jews of European descent, often referred to as white Jews, are classified as white by the US census and have generally been classified as legally white throughout American history.[115] Many American Jews of European descent identify themselves as being both Jewish and white, while others solely identify themselves as being Jewish or identify as both Jewish and non-white.[116] However, Jews of European descent rarely identify as Jews of color and are rarely considered people of color in American society. According to the Pew Research Center, the majority of American Jews are non-Hispanic white Ashkenazi Jews.[112] Law professor David Bernstein has questioned the idea that American Jews were once considered non-white, writing that American Jews were "indeed considered white by law and by custom" despite the fact that they experienced "discrimination, hostility, assertions of inferiority and occasionally even violence." Bernstein notes that Jews were not targeted by laws against interracial marriage, were allowed to attend whites-only schools, and were classified as white in the Jim Crow South.[117] The sociologists Philip Q. Yang and Kavitha Koshy have also questioned what they call the "becoming white thesis", noting that most Jews of European descent have been legally classified as white since the first US census in 1790, were legally white for the purposes of the Naturalization Act of 1790 that limited citizenship to "free White person(s)", and that they could find no legislative or judicial evidence that American Jews had ever been considered non-white.[115]
Several commentators have observed that "many American Jews retain a feeling of ambivalence about whiteness".[118] Karen Brodkin explains this ambivalence as rooted in anxieties about the potential loss of Jewish identity, especially outside of intellectual elites.[119] Similarly, Kenneth Marcus observes a number of ambivalent cultural phenomena which have also been noted by other scholars, and he concludes that "the veneer of whiteness has not established conclusively the racial construction of American Jews".[120] The relationship between American Jews and white majority identity continues to be described as "complicated".[121] Many American white nationalists view Jews as non-white.[122]
Jews of Middle Eastern and North African descent
Jews of Middle Eastern and North African descent (often referred to as Mizrahi Jews) are classified as white by the US census. Mizrahi Jews sometimes identify as Jews of color, but often do not, and they may or may not be considered people of color by society. Syrian Jews rarely identify as Jews of color and are generally not considered Jews of color by society. Many Syrian Jews identify as white, Middle Eastern, or otherwise non-white rather than as Jews of color.[112]
African American Jews
The American Jewish community includes African American Jews and other American
Notable African-American Jews include Drake, Lenny Kravitz, Lisa Bonet, Sammy Davis Jr., Rashida Jones, Ros Gold-Onwude, Yaphet Kotto, Jordan Farmar, Taylor Mays, Daveed Diggs, Alicia Garza, Tiffany Haddish and rabbis Capers Funnye and Alysa Stanton.
Relations between American Jews of African descent and other Jewish Americans are generally cordial.[
Hispanic and Latino American Jews
Hispanic Jews have lived in what is now the United States since colonial times. The earliest Hispanic Jewish settlers were Sephardi Jews from Spain and Portugal. Beginning in the 1500s, some of the Spanish settlers in what is now
Hispanic and Latino American Jews, particularly Hispanic and Latino Ashkenazi Jews, often identify as white rather than as Jews of color. Some Jews with roots in Latin America may not identify as "Hispanic" or "Latino" at all, usually due to their recent European immigrant origins.[112] American Jews of Argentine, Brazilian, and Mexican descent are often Ashkenazi, but some are Sephardi.[129]
Jews divided by Cultural or Jewish Ethnic Division Groupings
Ancestry | Population | % of US population |
---|---|---|
Ashkenazim[130] | 5,000,000–6,000,000 | 1.8–2.1% |
Sephardim[131]
|
300,000 | 0.088–0.088% |
Mizrahim | 250,000 | 0.073–0.073% |
Italkim[citation needed ]
|
200,000 | 0.059–0.059% |
Bukharim | 50,000–60,000 | 0.015–0.018% |
Juhurim | 10,000–40,000 | 0.003–0.012% |
Turkos
|
8,000 | 0.002–0.002% |
Romanyotim | 6,500 | 0.002–0.002% |
Beta Israel[132] | 1,000 | 0.0003% |
Total[133] | 5,700,000–8,000,000 | 1.7–2.3% |
Ashkenazi Jews in the United States
Sephardi Jews in the United States
Largely
As a result of the more recent
Mizrahi Jews in the United States
In current usage, the term Mizrahim is almost exclusively applied to descendants of the Middle Eastern Jewish communities from Western Asia and North Africa; in this classification are Iraqi, Kurdish, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemenite, Turkish and Iranian Jews, as well as the descendants of Maghrebi Jews who had lived in North African countries, such as Egyptian, Libyan, Tunisian, Algerian, and Moroccan Jews.[146]
Mizrahim is also sometimes extended to include Jewish communities from the
Post-1948,
Ethiopian Jews in the United States
The Beta Israel, also known as Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish community that developed and lived for centuries in the area of the Ethiopian Empire. Most of the Beta Israel community emigrated to Israel in the late 20th century.[149][150][151] Since the 1990s, around 1000 Hebrew-speaking, Ethiopian Jews that had settled in Israel as Ethiopian Jews in Israel re-settled in the United States as Ethiopian Americans, with around half of the Ethiopian Jewish Israeli-American community living in New York.[152]
Socioeconomics
Education plays a major role as a part of Jewish identity. As Jewish culture puts a special premium on it and stresses the importance of cultivation of intellectual pursuits, scholarship, and learning, American Jews as a group tend to be better educated and earn more than Americans as a whole.[153][154][155][156] Jewish Americans also have an average of 14.7 years of schooling making them the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the United States.[157][158]
Forty-four percent (55% of
31% of American Jews hold a graduate degree; this figure is compared with the general American population where 11% of Americans hold a graduate degree.[159] White collar professional jobs have been attractive to Jews and much of the community tend to take up professional white collar careers requiring tertiary education involving formal credentials where the respectability and reputability of professional jobs is highly prized within Jewish culture. While 46% of Americans work in professional and managerial jobs, 61% of American Jews work as professionals, many of whom are highly educated, salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed in management, professional, and related occupations such as engineering, science, medicine, investment banking, finance, law, and academia.[166]
Much of the Jewish American community lead middle class lifestyles.
As a whole, American and Canadian Jews donate more than $9 billion a year to charity. This reflects Jewish traditions of supporting social services as a way of living out the dictates of Jewish law. Most of the charities that benefit are not specifically Jewish organizations.[172]
While the median income of Jewish Americans is high, some Jewish communities have high levels of poverty. In the New York area, there are approximately 560,000 Jews living in poor or near-poor households, representing about 20% of the New York metropolitan Jewish community. Jewish people affected by poverty are disproportionately likely to be children, young adults, the elderly, people with low educational attainment, part-time workers, immigrants from the former Soviet Union, immigrants without American citizenship, Holocaust survivors, Orthodox families, and single adults including single parents.[173] Disability is a major factor in the socioeconomic status of disabled Jews. Disabled Jews are significantly more likely to be low-income compared to able-bodied Jews, while high-income Jews are significantly less likely to be disabled.[174][175] Secular Jews, Jews of no denomination, and people who identify as "just Jewish" are also more likely to live in poverty compared to Jews affiliated with a religious denomination.[176]
According to analysis by
The great majority of school-age Jewish students attend public schools, although Jewish day schools and yeshivas are to be found throughout the country. Jewish cultural studies and Hebrew language instruction is also commonly offered at synagogues in the form of supplementary Hebrew schools or Sunday schools.
From the early 1900s until the 1950s, quota systems were imposed at elite colleges and universities particularly in the Northeast, as a response to the growing number of children of recent Jewish immigrants; these limited the number of Jewish students accepted, and greatly reduced their previous attendance. Jewish enrollment at Cornell's School of Medicine fell from 40% to 4% between the world wars, and Harvard's fell from 30% to 4%.[179] Before 1945, only a few Jewish professors were permitted as instructors at elite universities. In 1941, for example, antisemitism drove Milton Friedman from a non-tenured assistant professorship at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.[180] Harry Levin became the first Jewish full professor in the Harvard English department in 1943, but the Economics department decided not to hire Paul Samuelson in 1948. Harvard hired its first Jewish biochemists in 1954.[181]
According to Clark Kerr, Martin Meyerson in 1965 became the first Jew to serve, albeit temporarily, as the leader of a major American research university.[182] That year, Meyerson served as acting chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, but was unable to obtain a permanent appointment as a result of a combination of tactical errors on his part and antisemitism on the UC Board of Regents.[182] Meyerson served as the president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1970 to 1981.
By 1986, a third of the presidents of the elite undergraduate
American Jews at American higher education institutions
Public Universities[183]
|
Private Universities
|
Religion
Jewishness in the United States is considered an
Observances and engagement
The American Jews' majority continues to identify themselves with Judaism and its main traditions, such as Conservative, Orthodox and Reform Judaism.[188][189] But, already in the 1980s, 20–30 percent of members of largest Jewish communities, such as of New York City, Chicago, Miami, and others, rejected a denominational label.[188]
According to the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey, 38% of Jews were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish".[190]
Jewish religious practice in America is quite varied. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as "strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% report some sort of active engagement with Judaism,[191] ranging from attending at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum, to as little as attending only Passover Seders or lighting Hanukkah candles on the other.
A 2003
Traditionally,
The survey discovered that Jews in the
In recent years, there has been a noticeable trend of secular American Jews returning to a more observant, in most cases, Orthodox, lifestyle. Such Jews are called baalei teshuva ("returners", see also Repentance in Judaism).[citation needed]
The 2008
Religious beliefs
American Jews are more likely to be atheists or agnostics than most Americans, especially when they are compared with American Protestants or Catholics. A 2003 poll found that while 79% of Americans believe in God, only 48% of American Jews do, compared to 79% and 90% of American Catholics and Protestants respectively. While 66% of Americans said that they were "absolutely certain" of God's existence, 24% of American Jews said the same. And though 9% of Americans believe that there is no God (8% of American Catholics and 4% of American Protestants), 19% of American Jews believe that God does not exist.[192]
A 2009 Harris Poll showed that American Jews constitute the one religious group which is most accepting of the science of evolution, with 80% accepting evolution, compared to 51% for Catholics, 32% for Protestants, and 16% of born-again Christians.[195] They were also less likely to believe in supernatural phenomena such as miracles, angels, or heaven.
A 2013 Pew Research Center report found that 1.7 million American Jewish adults, 1.6 million of whom were raised in Jewish homes or had Jewish ancestry, identified as Christians or Messianic Jews but also consider themselves ethnically Jewish. Another 700,000 American Christian adults considered themselves "Jews by affinity" or "grafted-in" Jews.[196][197]
Buddhism
Contemporary politics
Jews earn like
Puerto Ricans.
Today, American Jews are a distinctive and influential group in the nation's politics. Jeffrey S. Helmreich writes that the ability of American Jews to effect this through political or financial clout is overestimated,[208] that the primary influence lies in the group's voting patterns.[40]
"Jews have devoted themselves to politics with almost religious fervor," writes Mitchell Bard, who adds that Jews have the highest percentage voter turnout of any ethnic group (84% reported being registered to vote[209]).
Though the majority (60–70%) of the country's Jews identify as Democratic, Jews span the political spectrum, with those at higher levels of observance being far more likely to vote Republican than their less observant and secular counterparts.[210]
Owing to high Democratic identification in the
In 2019, after the 2016 election of Donald Trump, poll data from the Jewish Electorate Institute showed that 73% of Jewish voters felt less secure as Jews than before, 71% disapproved of Trump's handling of anti-Semitism (54% strongly disapprove), 59% felt that he bears "at least some responsibility" for the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting and Poway synagogue shooting, and 38% were concerned that Trump was encouraging right-wing extremism. Views of the Democratic and Republican parties were milder: 28% were concerned that Republicans were making alliances with white nationalists and tolerating anti-Semitism within their ranks, while 27% were concerned that Democrats were tolerating anti-Semitism within their ranks.[213]
In the
Foreign policy
American Jews have displayed a very strong interest in
Jewish Americans were more strongly opposed to the Iraq War from its onset than any other ethnic group, or even most Americans. The greater opposition to the war was not simply a result of high Democratic identification among Jewish Americans, as Jewish Americans of all political persuasions were more likely to oppose the war than non-Jews who shared the same political leanings.[219][220]
Domestic issues
A 2013 Pew Research Center survey suggests that American Jews' views on domestic politics are intertwined with the community's self-definition as a persecuted minority who benefited from the liberties and societal shifts in the United States and feel obligated to help other minorities enjoy the same benefits. American Jews across age and gender lines tend to vote for and support politicians and policies which are supported by the Democratic Party. On the other hand, Orthodox American Jews have domestic political views which are more similar to those of their religious Christian neighbors.[221]
American Jews are largely supportive of
A 2014 Pew poll found that American Jews mostly support abortion rights, with 83% answering that abortion should be legal in all or most cases.[227]
In considering the trade-off between the economy and environmental protection, American Jews were significantly more likely than other religious groups (excepting Buddhism) to favor stronger environmental protection.[228]
Jews in America also overwhelmingly oppose current United States marijuana policy.[needs update] In 2009, eighty-six percent of Jewish Americans opposed arresting nonviolent marijuana smokers, compared to 61% for the population at large and 68% of all Democrats. Additionally, 85% of Jews in the United States opposed using federal law enforcement to close patient cooperatives for medical marijuana in states where medical marijuana is legal, compared to 67% of the population at large and 73% of Democrats.[229]
A 2014 Pew Research survey titled "How Americans Feel About Religious Groups", found that Jews were viewed the most favorably of all other groups, with a rating of 63 out of 100.[230] Jews were viewed most positively by fellow Jews, followed by white Evangelicals. Sixty percent of the 3,200 persons surveyed said they had ever met a Jew.[231]
Jewish American culture
Since the time of the last major wave of Jewish immigration to America (over 2,000,000 Jews from Eastern Europe who arrived between 1890 and 1924), Jewish secular culture in the United States has become integrated in almost every important way with the broader American culture. Many aspects of Jewish American culture have, in turn, become part of the wider culture of the United States.
Language
Year | Hebrew | Yiddish |
---|---|---|
1910a | — |
1,051,767
|
1920a | — |
1,091,820
|
1930a | — |
1,222,658
|
1940a | — |
924,440
|
1960a | 38,346 |
503,605
|
1970a | 36,112 |
438,116
|
1980[232] | 315,953
| |
1990[233] | 144,292 |
213,064
|
2000[234] | 195,374 |
178,945
|
^a Foreign-born population only[235] |
Most American Jews today are native English speakers. A variety of other languages are still spoken within some American Jewish communities that are representative of the various Jewish ethnic divisions from around the world that have come together to make up all of America's Jewish population.
Many of America's
Many Mizrahi Jews, including those from Arab countries such as Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Yemen, Morocco, Libya, etc. speak Arabic. There are communities of Mizrahim in Brooklyn. The town of Deal, New Jersey, is notably mostly Syrian-Jewish, with many of them Orthodox.[236]
The
Many recent Jewish immigrants from the
American
There is a sizeable
There are a diversity of Hispanic Jews living in America. The oldest community is that of the Sephardi Jews of New Netherland. Their ancestors had fled Spain or Portugal during the Inquisition for the Netherlands, and then came to New Netherland. Though there is dispute over whether they should be considered Hispanic. Some Hispanic Jews, particularly in Miami and Los Angeles, immigrated from Latin America. The largest groups are those that fled Cuba after the communist revolution (known as Jewbans), Argentine Jews, and more recently, Venezuelan Jews. Argentina is the Latin American country with the largest Jewish population. There are a large number of synagogues in the Miami area that give services in Spanish. The last Hispanic Jewish community would be those that recently came from Portugal or Spain, after Spain and Portugal granted citizenship to the descendants of Jews who fled during the Inquisition. All the above listed Hispanic Jewish groups speak either Spanish or Ladino.
Jewish American literature
Although American Jews have contributed greatly to American arts in general, there still remains a distinctly Jewish American literature. Jewish American literature often explores the experience of being a Jew in America, and the conflicting pulls of secular society and history.
Popular culture
Yiddish theater was very well attended, and provided a training ground for performers and producers who moved to Hollywood in the 1920s. Many of the early Hollywood moguls and pioneers were Jewish.[240][241] They played roles in the development of radio and television networks, typified by William S. Paley who ran CBS.[242] Stephen J. Whitfield states that "The Sarnoff family was long dominant at NBC."[243]
Many individual Jews have made significant contributions to American popular culture.[244] There have been many Jewish American actors and performers, ranging from early 1900s actors, to classic Hollywood film stars, and culminating in many currently known actors. The field of American comedy includes many Jews. The legacy also includes songwriters and authors, for example the author of the song "Viva Las Vegas" Doc Pomus, or Billy the Kid composer Aaron Copland. Many Jews have been at the forefront of women's issues.
There were 110 Jewish players in Major League Baseball between 1870 and 1881.[245] The first generation of Jewish Americans who immigrated during the 1880–1924 peak period were not interested in baseball, and in some cases tried to prevent their children from watching or participating in baseball-related activities. Most were focused on making sure they and their children took advantage of education and employment opportunities. Despite the efforts of parents, Jewish children became interested in baseball quickly since it was already embedded in the broader American culture. The second generation of immigrants saw baseball as a means to celebrate American culture without abandoning their broader religious community. After 1924, many Yiddish newspapers began covering baseball, which they had not done previously.[245]
Government and military
Since 1845, a total of 34 Jews have served in the Senate, including the 14 present-day senators noted
The Civil War marked a transition for American Jews. It killed off the antisemitic canard, widespread in Europe, to the effect that Jews are cowardly, preferring to run from war rather than serve alongside their fellow citizens in battle.[246][247]
At least twenty eight American Jews have been awarded the Medal of Honor.
World War II
More than 550,000 Jews served in the
Many[citation needed] Jewish physicists, including J. Robert Oppenheimer, were involved in the Manhattan Project, the secret World War II effort to develop the atomic bomb. Many of these physicists were refugees from Nazi Germany or they were refugees from antisemitic persecution which was also occurring elsewhere in Europe.
American folk music
Jews have been involved in the American folk music scene since the late 19th century;[249] these tended to be refugees from Central and Eastern Europe, and significantly more economically disadvantaged than their established Western European Sephardic coreligionists.[250] Historians see it as a legacy of the secular Yiddish theater, cantorial traditions and a desire to assimilate. By the 1940s Jews had become established in the American folk music scene.
Examples of the major impact Jews have had in the American folk music arena include, but are not limited to:
Jews have also
Three of the four creators of the Newport Folk Festival, Wein, Bikel and Grossman (Seeger is not) were Jewish. Albert Grossman put together Peter, Paul and Mary, of which Yarrow is Jewish. Oscar Brand, from a Canadian Jewish family, has the longest running radio program "Oscar Brand's Folksong Festival" which has been on air consecutively since 1945 from New York City.[251] And is the first American broadcast where the host himself will answer any personal correspondence.
The influential group The Weavers, successor to the Almanac Singers, led by Pete Seeger, had a Jewish manager, and two of the four members of the group were Jewish (Gilbert and Hellerman). The B-side of "Good Night Irene" had the Hebrew folk song personally chosen for the record by Pete Seeger "Tzena, Tzena, Tzena".
The influential folk music magazine Sing Out! was co-founded and edited by Irwin Silber in 1951, and edited by him until 1967, when the magazine stopped publication for decades. Rolling Stone magazine's first music critic Jon Landau is of German Jewish descent. Izzy Young who created the legendary[252] Folklore Center in New York, and currently the Folklore Centrum near Mariatorget in Södermalm, Sweden, which relates to American and Swedish folk music.[253]
Dave Van Ronk observed that the behind the scenes 1950s folk scene "was at the very least 50 percent Jewish, and they adopted the music as part of their assimilation into the Anglo-American tradition which itself was largely an artificial construct but none the less provided us with some common ground".[254] Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan is also Jewish.
Finance and law
Jews have been involved in financial services since the colonial era. They received rights to trade fur, from the Dutch and Swedish colonies. British governors honored these rights after taking over. During the Revolutionary War, Haym Solomon helped create America's first semi-central bank, and advised Alexander Hamilton on the building of America's financial system.[citation needed]
American Jews in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries played a major role in developing America's financial services industry, both at investment banks and with investment funds.[255] German Jewish bankers began to assume a major role in American finance in the 1830s when government and private borrowing to pay for canals, railroads and other internal improvements increased rapidly and significantly. Men such as August Belmont (Rothschild's agent in New York and a leading Democrat), Philip Speyer, Jacob Schiff (at Kuhn, Loeb & Company), Joseph Seligman, Philip Lehman (of Lehman Brothers), Jules Bache, and Marcus Goldman (of Goldman Sachs) illustrate this financial elite.[256] As was true of their non-Jewish counterparts, family, personal, and business connections, a reputation for honesty and integrity, ability, and a willingness to take calculated risks were essential to recruit capital from widely scattered sources. The families and the firms which they controlled were bound together by religious and social factors, and by the prevalence of intermarriage. These personal ties fulfilled real business functions before the advent of institutional organization in the 20th century.[257][258] Antisemitic elements often falsely targeted them as key players in a supposed Jewish cabal conspiring to dominate the world.[259]
Since the late 20th century, Jews have played a major role in the hedge fund industry, according to Zuckerman (2009).
Very few Jewish lawyers were hired by
Federal Reserve
Science, business, and academia
Many Jews have become remarkably successful as an entrepreneurial and professional minority in the United States.[167] Many Jewish family businesses that are passed down from one generation to the next serve as an asset, source of income and layer a strong financial groundwork for the family's overall socioeconomic prosperity.[279][280][281][282] Within the Jewish American cultural sphere, Jewish Americans have also developed a strong culture of entrepreneurship, for excellence in entrepreneurship and engagement in business and commerce is highly prized in Jewish culture.[283] American Jews have also been drawn to various disciplines within academia such as physics, sociology, economics, psychology, mathematics, philosophy and linguistics (see Jewish culture for some of the causes), and have played a disproportionate role in numerous academic domains. Jewish American intellectuals such as Saul Bellow, Ayn Rand, Noam Chomsky, Thomas Friedman, Milton Friedman and Elie Wiesel have made a major impact within mainstream American public life. Of American Nobel Prize winners, 37 percent have been Jewish Americans (18 times the percentage of Jews in the population), as have been 61 percent of the John Bates Clark Medal in economics recipients (thirty-five times the Jewish percentage).[284]
In the business world, it was found in 1995 that while Jewish Americans constituted less than 2.5 percent of the U.S. population, they occupied 7.7 percent of board seats at various U.S.
Since many careers in science, business, and academia generally pay well, Jewish Americans also tend to have a somewhat higher average income than most Americans. The 2000–2001 National Jewish Population Survey shows that the median income of a Jewish family is $54,000 a year ($5,000 more than the average family) and 34% of Jewish households report income over $75,000 a year.[286]
Food
Jewish American people have had a large effect on the cuisine of the United States. Common foods eaten by Jewish Americans are
Notable people
See also
- American Jewish cuisine
- Israeli Americans
- Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America
- List of Jewish political milestones in the United States
- National Museum of American Jewish Military History
- Jews in Los Angeles
- Jews in Maine
- Perpetual foreigner stereotype in America
- Stereotypes of Jews
Notes
- ^ Percentage of the state population that identifies itself as Jewish.
- ^ /ˌæʃ-, ɑːʃkəˈnɑːzɪm/ ASH-, AHSH-kə-NAH-zim;[134] Hebrew: אַשְׁכְּנַזִּים, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: [ˌaʃkəˈnazim], singular: [ˌaʃkəˈnazi], Modern Hebrew: [(ʔ)aʃkenaˈzim, (ʔ)aʃkenaˈzi]; also יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, Y'hudey Ashkenaz,[135]
- ^ Hebrew: סְפָרַדִּים, Modern Hebrew: Sefaraddim, Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm, also יְהוּדֵי סְפָרַד, Ye'hude Sepharad, lit. "The Jews of Spain", Spanish: Judíos sefardíes (or sefarditas), Portuguese: Judeus sefarditas
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The 1993 Oslo Agreement made this split in the Jewish community official. Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin's handshake with Yasir Arafat during the September 13 White House ceremony elicited dramatically opposed reactions among American Jews. To the liberal universalists the accord was highly welcome news. As one commentator put it, after a year of tension between Israel and the United States, "there was an audible sigh of relief from American and Jewish liberals. Once again, they could support Israel as good Jews, committed liberals, and loyal Americans." The community "could embrace the Jewish state, without compromising either its liberalism or its patriotism".
However, to some right wing Jews, the peace treaty was worrisome. From their perspective, Oslo was not just an affront to the sanctity of how they interpreted their culture, but also a personal threat to the lives and livelihood in the West Bank and Gaza, territory which was historically known as "Judea and Samaria". For these Jews, such as Morton Klein, the president of the Zionist organization of America, and Norman Podhoretz, the editor of Commentary, the peace treaty amounted to an appeasement of Palestinian terrorism. They and others repeatedly warned that the newly established Palestinian Authority (PA) would pose a serious security threat to Israel. - ^ Lasensky, Scott (March 2002). Rubin, Barry (ed.). "Underwriting Peace in the Middle East: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Limits of Economic Inducements". Middle East Review of International Affairs. 6 (1). Archived from the original on May 10, 2009.
The Palestinian aid effort was certainly not helped by the heated debate that quickly developed inside the Beltway. Not only was the Israeli electorate divided on the Oslo accords, but so, too, was the American Jewish community, particularly at the leadership level and among the major New York and Washington-based public interest groups. American Jews opposed to Oslo joined Israelis "who brought their domestic issues to Washington" and together they pursued a campaign that focused most of its attention on Congress and the aid program. The dynamic was new to Washington. The Administration, the Rabin-Peres government, and some American Jewish groups teamed on one side while Israeli opposition groups and anti-Oslo American Jewish organizations pulled Congress in the other direction.
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A 2013 Pew Research Center analysis of Jewish identification showed that in addition to the 1.8% of U.S. adults who identified their religion as Jewish (very similar to Gallup's estimate), another small percentage of Americans who did not initially say their religion was Jewish identified their secular heritage as Jewish. According to this research, at maximum 2.2% of the U.S. adult population has some basis for Jewish self-identification.
- ^ a b c 7,153,065 as of 2020 according to:
- "Jewish Population in the United States by State". Jewish Population in the United States by State. Jewish Virtual Library. Archived from the original on October 18, 2020. Retrieved February 24, 2021.
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{{cite news}}
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- ^ Stephen Birmingham, Our Crowd: The Great Jewish Families of New York (1967) pp. 8–9, 96–108, 128–42, 233–36, 331–37, 343,
- ^ Vincent P. Carosso, "A Financial Elite: New York's German-Jewish Investment Bankers," American Jewish Historical Quarterly, 1976, Vol. 66 Issue 1, pp. 67–88
- ^ Barry E. Supple, "A Business Elite: German-Jewish Financiers in Nineteenth-Century New York," Business History Review, Summer 1957, Vol. 31 Issue 2, pp. 143–177
- ^ Richard Levy, ed. "Bankers, Jewish" in Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution (2005) pp. 55–56
- ^ Bruce Zuckerman, The Jewish Role In American Life (2009) pp. 64, 70
- ^ Led by Steven Cohen; Bruce Zuckerman, The Jewish Role In American Life (2009) p. 71
- ^ Bruce Zuckerman, The Jewish Role In American Life (2009) p. 72
- ^ "Schechter school mourns founder Golda Och, 74" New Jersey Jewish News January 13, 2010
- ^ "The 400 Richest Americans: No. 355 Noam Gottesman" Forbes Sept 17. 1008
- ^ Steven L. Pease. The Golden Age of Jewish Achievement (2009) p. 510
- ^ JTA: "Jewish, Republican, pro-gay rights" By Ron Kampeas May 14, 2011
- ^ "Mitt Romney's hedge fund kingmaker". Fortune. Archived from the original on November 20, 2019. Retrieved December 12, 2019.
- ^ See Jamie Johnson, "Wasps Stung over Renaming of the N.Y.P.L." Vanity Fair Daily May 19, 2008
- ^ Hareetz: "A shy wunderkind, Stephen Feinberg" By Eytan Avriel Archived May 5, 2014, at the Wayback Machine November 16, 2005
- ^ "TPG Sells Shares of Indian Company – Win-win for Everybody!" By Orna Taub Archived January 11, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, Jewish Business News, March 26, 2013
- ^ Kaminer, Michael (September 3, 2010). "Jews Dominate Vanity Fair 100 Most Influential Moguls List". The Jewish Daily Forward. Israel. Archived from the original on December 12, 2015. Retrieved September 3, 2010.
- ^ Robin Pogrebin, "Donor Gives Lincoln Center $10 Million", New York Times Sept. 30, 2009 Archived November 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Ron Chernow, The Warburgs (1994) p. 661
- ^ R. William Weisberger, "Jews and American Investment Banking," American Jewish Archives, June 1991, Vol. 43 Issue 1, pp. 71–75
- ^ On the careers of John Gutfreund (at Salomon Brothers); Felix Rohatyn (based at Lazard); Sanford I. Weill (of Citigroup) and numerous others see Judith Ramsey Ehrlich, The New Crowd: The Changing of the Jewish Guard on Wall Street (1990), pp. 4, 72, 226.
- ^ Charles D. Ellis, The Partnership: The Making of Goldman Sachs (2nd ed. 2009) pp. 29, 45, 52, 91, 93
- ^ Eli Wald, "The rise and fall of the WASP and Jewish law firms." Stanford Law Review 60 (2007): 1803-1866; discrimination p. 1838 and statistics p. 1805.
- ^ Ron Chernow, The Warburgs (1994) p. 26
- ^ "Common traits bind Jews and Chinese". Asia Times Online. January 10, 2014. Archived from the original on January 10, 2014. Retrieved September 23, 2015.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ "Misconceptions and lessons about Chinese and Jewish entrepreneurs". Lifestyle. August 3, 2015. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved September 23, 2015.
- ^ Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein (April 18, 2013). "The Chosen Few: A New Explanation of Jewish Success". PBS Newshour. Archived from the original on September 6, 2017. Retrieved July 4, 2015.
- ^ Goldstein, Tani (October 26, 2011). "How did American Jews get so rich?". YNetNews. Archived from the original on November 1, 2013. Retrieved July 4, 2015.
- ^ a b Nathan-Kazis, Josh (May 6, 2014). "Why Are So Many Pro Basketball Owners Jewish (Like Donald Sterling)?". Forward. Archived from the original on April 12, 2015. Retrieved April 5, 2015.
- ^ "JEWISH RECIPIENTS OF THE JOHN BATES CLARK MEDAL IN ECONOMICS". Jinfo. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014. Retrieved September 9, 2014.
- ^ "Mother Jones, the Changing Power Elite, 1998". Mother Jones. Archived from the original on May 8, 2009. Retrieved January 20, 2007.
- ^ "NJPS: Demography: Education, Employment and Income". jewishfederations.org. 2001. Archived from the original on July 20, 2013.
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Politics
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Other topics
- Antler, Joyce, ed. (1998). Talking Back: Images of Jewish Women in American Popular Culture.
- ISBN 0422777501.
- Cutler, Irving. (1995). The Jews of Chicago: From Shtetl to Suburb.
- Dinnerstein, Leonard (1994). Antisemitism in America.
- Heilman, Samuel C. Portrait of American Jews: The Last Half of the 20th Century.
- Kobrin, Rebecca, ed. Chosen Capital: The Jewish Encounter With American Capitalism (Rutgers University Press; 2012) 311 pages; scholarly essays on the liquor, real-estate, and scrap-metal industries, and Jews as union organizers.
- ISBN 1-59045-039-6
- Liebman, Charles S.; Argov, Merkaz (2001). A Research Agenda for American Jews. Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University, Dept. of Political Studies.
- To the Golden Cities: Pursuing the American Jewish Dream in Miami and L. A.1994.
- Moore, Deborah Dash. GI Jews: How World War II Changed a Generation (2006).
- Morawska, Ewa (1999). Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America, 1890–1940. Princeton University Press.
- Novick, Peter. The Holocaust in American Life. 1999.
- Rebhum, Uzi; Ari, Lilakh Lev (2010). American Israelis: Migration, Transnationalism, and Diasporic Identity. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18388-9.
- ISBN 0-8143-1936-X.
Sourcebooks
- American Jewish Committee. American Jewish Yearbook: The Annual Record of Jewish Civilization (annual, 1899–2012+),complete text online 1899–2007; long sophisticated essays on status of Jews in U.S. and worldwide; the standard primary source used by historians.
- Blau, Joseph Leon; Baron, Salo Wittmayer, eds. (1963). The Jews of the United States, 1790–1840: A Documentary History. Vol. 1. New York; Philadelphia, Pa: Columbia University Press; The Jewish Publication Society.
- Marcus, Jacob Rader, ed. The American Jewish Woman, A Documentary History (Ktav 1981).
- Schappes, Morris Urman, ed. A documentary history of the Jews in the United States, 1654–1875 (Citadel Press, 1952).
- Staub, Michael E. ed. The Jewish 1960s: An American Sourcebook University Press of New England, 2004; 371 pp.
- Wenger, Beth S. (2007). The Jewish Americans: Three Centuries of Jewish Voices in America. New York: Doubleday. OCLC 144774311.
External links
- American Jewish Historical Society
- American Jewish Archives
- American Jewish Congress
- American Jewish World Service
- Jewish Federations of North America
- My Jewish Learning: American Jewish Life
- Jewish population growth in the United States – The Literary Digest (1922)
- The Berman Jewish Databank @ The Jewish Federations of North America