Jewish culture

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Jewish festival in Tétouan, Morocco, 1865
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Museum of Jewish culture in Bratislava

Jewish culture is the culture of the

orthoprax and ethnoreligion, pertaining to deed, practice, and identity.[2] Jewish culture covers many aspects, including religion and worldviews, literature, media, and cinema, art and architecture, cuisine and traditional dress, attitudes to gender, marriage, family, social customs and lifestyles, music and dance.[3] Some elements of Jewish culture come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews with host populations, and others still from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community. Before the 18th century, religion dominated virtually all aspects of Jewish life, and infused culture. Since the advent of secularization, wholly secular Jewish
culture emerged likewise.

History

Tombstones from a Jewish cemetery, 13th century, Paris
Main article: Jewish history

There has not been a political unity of Jewish society since the

Western Asia; and other populations of Jews lived in Central Asia, Ethiopia, the Caucasus, and India. (See Jewish ethnic divisions
.)

While there has been communication and traffic between these Jewish communities, many Sephardic exiles blended into the Ashkenazi communities which existed in Central Europe following the

Muslim laws of dhimma, and the traditional discouragement of contact between Jews and members of polytheistic
populations by their religious leaders.

Medieval Jewish communities in Eastern Europe continued to display distinct cultural traits over the centuries. Despite the universalist leanings of the Enlightenment (and its echo within Judaism in the Haskalah movement), many Yiddish-speaking Jews in Eastern Europe continued to see themselves as forming a distinct national group — " 'am yehudi", from the Biblical Hebrew – but, adapting this idea to Enlightenment values, they assimilated the concept as that of an ethnic group whose identity did not depend on religion, which under Enlightenment thinking fell under a separate category.

Constantin Măciucă writes of the existence of "a differentiated but not isolated Jewish spirit" permeating the culture of Yiddish-speaking Jews.[4] This was only intensified as the rise of Romanticism amplified the sense of national identity across Europe generally. Thus, for example, members of the General Jewish Labour Bund in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were generally non-religious, and one of the historical leaders of the Bund was the child of converts to Christianity, though not a practicing or believing Christian himself.[citation needed]

The

Jewish Emancipation movement under way in Central and Western Europe to create an opportunity for Jews to enter secular society. At the same time, pogroms
in Eastern Europe provoked a surge of migration, in large part to the United States, where some 2 million Jewish immigrants resettled between 1880 and 1920. By 1931, shortly before The Holocaust, 92% of the World's Jewish population was Ashkenazi in origin. Secularism originated in Europe as series of movements that militated for a new, heretofore unheard-of concept called "secular Judaism". For these reasons, much of what is thought of by English-speakers and, to a lesser extent, by non-English-speaking Europeans as "secular Jewish culture" is, in essence, the Jewish cultural movement that evolved in Central and Eastern Europe, and subsequently brought to North America by immigrants. During the 1940s, the Holocaust uprooted and destroyed most of the Jewish communities living in much of Europe. This, in combination with the
Jewish exodus from Arab lands
, resulted in a further geographic shift.

Sephardi Jewish couple from Sarajevo
in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900.

Defining secular culture among those who practice traditional Judaism is difficult, because the entire culture is, by definition, entwined with religious traditions: the idea of separate ethnic and religious identity is foreign to the Hebrew tradition of an " 'am yisrael". (This is particularly true for Orthodox Judaism.) Gary Tobin, head of the Institute for Jewish and Community Research, said of traditional Jewish culture:

The dichotomy between religion and culture doesn't really exist. Every religious attribute is filled with culture; every cultural act filled with religiosity. Synagogues themselves are great centers of Jewish culture. After all, what is life really about? Food, relationships, enrichment … So is Jewish life. So many of our traditions inherently contain aspects of culture. Look at the Passover Seder — it's essentially great theater. Jewish education and religiosity bereft of culture is not as interesting.[5]

Yaakov Malkin, Professor of Aesthetics and Rhetoric at Tel Aviv University and the founder and academic director of Meitar College for Judaism as Culture[6] in Jerusalem, writes:

Today very many secular Jews take part in Jewish cultural activities, such as celebrating Jewish holidays as historical and nature festivals, imbued with new content and form, or marking life-cycle events such as birth, bar/bat mitzvah, marriage, and mourning in a secular fashion. They come together to study topics pertaining to Jewish culture and its relation to other cultures, in havurot, cultural associations, and secular synagogues, and they participate in public and political action coordinated by secular Jewish movements, such as the former movement to free Soviet Jews, and movements to combat pogroms, discrimination, and religious coercion. Jewish secular humanistic education inculcates universal moral values through classic Jewish and world literature and through organizations for social change that aspire to ideals of justice and charity.[7]

In North America, the secular and cultural Jewish movements are divided into three umbrella organizations: the

Workmen's Circle
.

Philosophy and religion

Main articles: Jewish philosophy and Jewish religious movements
See also:
List of Jewish philosophers
The Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides (circa 1190)

Jewish philosophy includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or in relation to the religion of Judaism. The Jewish philosophy is extended over several main eras in Jewish history, including the ancient and biblical era, medieval era and modern era (see Haskalah).

The ancient Jewish philosophy is expressed in the bible. According to Prof. Israel Efros the principles of the Jewish philosophy start in the bible, where the foundations of the Jewish monotheistic beliefs can be found, such as the belief in

Sirach and Book of Wisdom
.

During the

Greek philosophy with Jewish philosophy. His work attempts to combine Plato and Moses into one philosophical system.[10] He developed an allegoric approach of interpreting holy scriptures (the bible), in contrast to (old-fashioned) literally interpretation approaches. His allegorical exegesis was important for several Christian Church Fathers and some scholars hold that his concept of the Logos as God's creative principle influenced early Christology. Other scholars, however, deny direct influence but say both Philo and Early Christianity borrow from a common source.[11]

Ethics

Between the

Nahmanides, Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud, Nissim of Gerona, Bahya ibn Paquda, Abraham bar Hiyya, Joseph ibn Tzaddik, Hasdai Crescas and Isaac ben Moses Arama. The most notable is Maimonides who is considered in the Jewish world to be a prominent philosopher and polymath in the Islamic and Western worlds. Outside of Spain, other philosophers are Natan'el al-Fayyumi, Elia del Medigo, Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi and Gersonides
.

Philosophy by Jews in

Breslov. The 20th century included the notable philosophers Jacques Derrida, Karl Popper, Emmanuel Levinas, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Hilary Putnam, Alfred Tarski, Ludwig Wittgenstein, A. J. Ayer, Walter Benjamin, Raymond Aron, Theodor W. Adorno, Isaiah Berlin and Henri Bergson
.

Philo
(c. 25 BCE–c. 50 CE))
Nahmanides

(1194–1270)		 Maimonides
(1135/1138–1204)		 Baruch Spinoza
(1632–1677)		 Moses Mendelssohn
(1729–1786)
Schneur Zalman of Liadi

(1745–1812)		 Emma Goldman
(1869–1940)		 Ludwig Wittgenstein
(1889–1951)		 Hannah Arendt
(1906–1975)		 Menachem Mendel Schneerson
(1902–1994)

Education and politics

Main article: Jewish education
See also:
List of Jews in politics

A range of moral and political views is evident early in the history of Judaism, that serves to partially explain the diversity that is apparent among secular Jews who are often influenced by moral beliefs that can be found in Jewish scripture, and traditions. In recent centuries, secular Jews in Europe and the Americas have tended towards the

pluralism more consistently than many other elements of the political right. Some scholars[15] attribute this to the fact that Jews are not expected to proselytize, derived from Halakha. This lack of a universalizing religion is combined with the fact that most Jews live as minorities in diaspora countries, and that no central Jewish religious authority has existed since 363 CE. Jews value education, and the value of education is strongly embedded in Jewish culture.[16][17]

Economic activity

David Ricardo (1772–1823) was one of the most influential of the classical economists.[18][19]

In the

Canon law did not apply to Jews, they were not liable to the ecclesiastical punishments which were placed upon usurers by the popes. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having a class of men like the Jews who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication
, and so the money trade of western Europe by this means fell into the hands of the Jews.

However, in almost every instance where large amounts were acquired by Jews through banking transactions the property thus acquired fell either during their life or upon their death into the hands of the king. This happened to Aaron of Lincoln in England, Ezmel de Ablitas in Navarre, Heliot de Vesoul in Provence, Benveniste de Porta in Aragon, etc. It was often for this reason that kings supported the Jews, and even objected to them becoming Christians (because in that case their fortunes earned by usury could not be seized by the crown after their deaths). Thus, both in England and in France the kings demanded to be compensated by the church for every Jew converted. This type of royal trickery was one factor in creating the stereotypical Jewish role of banker and/or merchant.

As a modern system of capital began to develop, loans became necessary for commerce and industry. Jews were able to gain a foothold in the new field of finance by providing these services: as non-Catholics, they were not bound by the ecclesiastical prohibition against "usury"; and in terms of Judaism itself, Hillel had long ago re-interpreted the Torah's ban on charging interest, allowing interest when it is needed to make a living.[citation needed]

Science and technology

See also:
List of Jewish scientists and philosophers, List of Jewish Nobel laureates, and List of Jewish mathematicians
Further information: Science and technology in Israel, Jewish medicine, and Hebrew astronomy

The strong Jewish tradition of religious scholarship often left Jews well prepared for secular scholarship. In some times and places, this was countered by banning Jews from studying at universities, or admitting them only in limited numbers (see Jewish quota). Over the centuries, Jews have been poorly represented among land-holding classes, but far better represented in academia, professions, finance, commerce and many scientific fields. The strong representation of Jews in science and academia is evidenced by the fact that 193 persons known to be Jews or of Jewish ancestry have been awarded the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of all individual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2014.[21] Of whom, 26% in physics,[22] 22% in chemistry[23] and 27% in Physiology or Medicine.[24] In the fields of mathematics and computer science, 31% of Turing Award recipients[25] and 27% of Fields Medal in mathematics[26] were or are Jewish.

double helix structure with a backbone consisting of phosphate groups[27][28][29]

The early Jewish activity in science can be found in the

physical world. Biblical cosmology provides sporadic glimpses that may be stitched together to form a Biblical impression of the physical universe. There have been comparisons between the Bible, with passages such as from the Genesis creation narrative, and the astronomy of classical antiquity more generally.[30] The Bible also contains various cleansing rituals. One suggested ritual, for example, deals with the proper procedure for cleansing a leper (Leviticus 14:1–32). It is a fairly elaborate process, which is to be performed after a leper was already healed of leprosy (Leviticus 14:3
), involving extensive cleansing and personal hygiene, but also includes sacrificing a bird and lambs with the addition of using their blood to symbolize that the afflicted has been cleansed.

The Torah proscribes Intercropping (Lev. 19:19, Deut 22:9), a practice often associated with sustainable agriculture and organic farming in modern agricultural science.[31][32] The Mosaic code has provisions concerning the conservation of natural resources, such as trees (Deuteronomy 20:19–20) and birds (Deuteronomy 22:6–7).

During Medieval era astronomy was a primary field among Jewish scholars and was widely studied and practiced.

method of indivisibles the following equation for any circle: S = LxR/2, where S is the surface area, L is the circumference length and R is radius.[36]

German edition of the astronomy book De scientia motvs orbis, originally by Mashallah ibn Athari

Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India in 1563,[37] which deals with a series of substances, many of them unknown or the subject of confusion and misinformation in Europe at this period. He was the first European to describe Asiatic tropical diseases, notably cholera; he performed an autopsy on a cholera victim, the first recorded autopsy in India. Bonet de Lattes known chiefly as the inventor of an astronomical ring-dial by means of which solar and stellar altitudes can be measured and the time determined with great precision by night as well as by day. Other related personalities are Abraham ibn Ezra, whose the Moon crater Abenezra named after, David Gans, Judah ibn Verga, Mashallah ibn Athari an astronomer, The crater Messala
on the Moon is named after him.

gravitational waves.[38][39][40]
Einstein formulated the well-known Mass–energy equivalence, E = mc2, and explained the photoelectric effect. His work also effected and influenced a large variety of fields of physics including the Big Bang theory (Einstein's General relativity influenced Georges Lemaître), Quantum mechanics and nuclear energy.

Castle Romeo (nuclear test). A large number of Jewish scientists were involved in the Manhattan Project

The

Stanislaw Ulam; Eugene Wigner contributed to theory of Atomic nucleus and Elementary particle; Hans Bethe whose work included Stellar nucleosynthesis and was head of the Theoretical Division at the secret Los Alamos laboratory; Richard Feynman, Niels Bohr, Victor Weisskopf and Joseph Rotblat
.

The mathematician and physicist

radio astronomer co-discoverer of the cosmic microwave background radiation, which helped establish the Big Bang theory, the scientists Robert Herman and Ralph Alpher had also worked on that field. In quantum mechanics Jewish role was significant as well and many of most influential figures and pioneers of the theory were Jewish: Niels Bohr and his work on the atom structure, Max Born (Schrödinger equation), Wolfgang Pauli, Richard Feynman (Quantum chromodynamics), Fritz London work on London dispersion force and London equations, Walter Heitler and Julian Schwinger work on Quantum electrodynamics, Asher Peres a pioneer in Quantum information, David Bohm (Quantum potential
).

repression as well as for elaboration of his theory of the unconscious as an agency disruptive of conscious states of mind.[43] Freud postulated the existence of libido, an energy with which mental processes and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, the source of repetition, hate, aggression and neurotic guilt.[44]

Theodore H. Maiman in 1960[45][46]

conservation laws.[51]

Israeli Shavit space launcher

More remarkable contributors include

Theodor Adorno, Nathan Glazer, Erving Goffman, Georg Simmel
.

See also: List of Israeli inventions and discoveries

Beside Scientific discoveries and researches, Jews have created significant and influential innovations in a large variety of fields such as the listed samples:

Zend Technologies; Ralph H. Baer
, "The Father of Video Games".

Garcia de Orta
(1501/2–1568)		 Sigmund Freud
(1856–1939)		 Albert Einstein
(1879–1955)		 Emmy Noether
(1882–1935)

Niels Bohr
(1885–1962)		 John von Neumann
(1903–1957)
Robert Oppenheimer

(1904–1967)		 Richard Feynman
(1918–1988)

Literature and poetry

Main articles:
Jewish poetry
See also:
List of Jews in literature and journalism

In some places where there have been relatively high concentrations of Jews, distinct secular Jewish subcultures have arisen.[52] For example, ethnic Jews formed an enormous proportion of the literary and artistic life of Vienna, Austria at the end of the 19th century, or of New York City 50 years later (and Los Angeles in the mid-late 20th century). Many of these creative Jews were not particularly religious people. In general, Jewish artistic culture in various periods reflected the culture in which they lived.

Classical era. It comprises cultural values, basic human values, mythology and religious beliefs of both Judaism and Christianity[53]

Literary and theatrical expressions of secular Jewish culture may be in specifically Jewish languages such as

shtetls of Poland and the Lower East Side of New York City during the early 20th century spoke Yiddish
at most times, while assimilated Jews in 19th and early 20th-century Germany spoke German, and American-born Jews in the United States speak English.

Jewish authors have both created a unique Jewish literature and contributed to the national literature of many of the countries in which they live. Though not strictly secular, the Yiddish works of authors like Sholem Aleichem (whose collected works amounted to 28 volumes) and Isaac Bashevis Singer (winner of the 1978 Nobel Prize), form their own canon, focusing on the Jewish experience in both Eastern Europe, and in America. In the United States, Jewish writers like Philip Roth, Saul Bellow, and many others are considered among the greatest American authors, and incorporate a distinctly secular Jewish view into many of their works. The poetry of Allen Ginsberg often touches on Jewish themes (notably the early autobiographical works such as Howl and Kaddish). Other famous Jewish authors that made contributions to world literature include Heinrich Heine, German poet, Mordecai Richler, Canadian author, Isaac Babel, Russian author, Franz Kafka, of Prague, and Harry Mulisch, whose novel The Discovery of Heaven was revealed by a 2007 poll as the "Best Dutch Book Ever".[54]

Hebrew Book Week in Jerusalem, 2017
Hebrew Book Week in Tel Aviv, 1974

In Modern Judaism: An Oxford Guide,

Max Reinhardt (Goldman), Ernst Lubitsch, and Woody Allen."[7]

Other notable contributors are

R.L. Stine (Goosebumps series); J. D. Salinger (The Catcher in the Rye); Michael Chabon (The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay, The Yiddish Policemen's Union); Marcel Proust (In Search of Lost Time); Arthur Miller (Death of a Salesman and The Crucible); Will Eisner (A Contract with God); Shel Silverstein (The Giving Tree); Arthur Koestler (Darkness at Noon, The Thirteenth Tribe); Saul Bellow (Herzog); The historical novel series The Accursed Kings by Maurice Druon is an inspiration for George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire novels.[55][56][57]

Among recipient of Nobel Prize in Literature, 13% were or are Jewish.[58]

Another aspect of Jewish literature is the ethical, called Musar literature. This literature has been composed by both religious and secular authors.[59]

Yehuda Halevi, Samuel ibn Naghrillah, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Moses ibn Ezra, Abraham ibn Ezra and Dunash ben Labrat. Modern Hebrew poetry is mostly related to the era of and after the revival of the Hebrew language, pioneered by Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in the Haskalah era and succeeded by poets such as Hayim Nahman Bialik, Nathan Alterman and Shaul Tchernichovsky
.

See also:
Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus, and Modern Hebrew poetry
Yehuda Halevi

(c. 1075–1141)		 Heinrich Heine
(1797–1856)		 Sholem Aleichem
(1859–1916)		 Franz Kafka
(1883–1924)		 Boris Pasternak
(1890–1960)		 Ayn Rand
(1905–1982)		 Isaac Asimov
(1920–1992)		 Allen Ginsberg
(1926–1997)

Theatre

Yiddish theatre

Main article: Yiddish theatre
Hana Rovina in The Dybbuk (1920), a play by S. Ansky

The

Yiddish-language theatre troupe in Iași, Romania
in 1876. The next year, his troupe achieved enormous success in
S. Ansky
.

Yiddish theater in New York in the early 20th century rivalled English-language theater in quantity and often surpassed it in quality. A 1925

New York Times article remarks, "…Yiddish theater… is now a stable American institution and no longer dependent on immigration from Eastern Europe. People who can neither speak nor write Yiddish attend Yiddish stage performances and pay Broadway prices on Second Avenue." This article also mentions other aspects of a New York Jewish cultural life "in full flower" at that time, among them the fact that the extensive New York Yiddish-language press of the time included seven daily newspapers.[60]

In fact, however, the next generation of American Jews spoke mainly English to the exclusion of Yiddish; they brought the artistic energy of Yiddish theater into the American theatrical mainstream, but usually in a less specifically Jewish form.

Yiddish theater, most notably

Moscow State Jewish Theater directed by Solomon Mikhoels, also played a prominent role in the arts scene of the Soviet Union until Stalin's 1948 reversal in government policy toward the Jews. (See Rootless cosmopolitan, Night of the Murdered Poets
.)

Montreal's Dora Wasserman Yiddish Theatre continues to thrive after 50 years of performance.

European theatre

Sarah Bernhardt, 1864

From their

Nietzsche asked "What good actor of today is not Jewish?", acting, directing and writing positions were often filled by Jews. Both MacDonald and Jewish Tribal Review would generally be counted as antisemitic sources, but reasonably careful in their factual claims. "In Imperial Berlin, Jewish artists could be found in the forefront of the performing arts, from high drama to more popular forms like cabaret and revue, and eventually film. Jewish audiences patronized innovative theater, regardless of whether they approved of what they saw."[61] The British historian Paul Johnson, commenting on Jewish contributions to European culture at the Fin de siècle
, writes that

The area where Jewish influence was strongest was the theatre, especially in Berlin. Playwrights like

Max Reinhardt, appeared at times to dominate the stage, which tended to be modishly left-wing, pro-republican, experimental and sexually daring. But it was certainly not revolutionary, and it was cosmopolitan rather than Jewish.[62]

Jews also made similar, if not as massive, contributions to theatre and drama in Austria, Britain, France, and Russia (in the national languages of those countries). Jews in Vienna, Paris and German cities found cabaret both a popular and effective means of expression, as German cabaret in the Weimar Republic "was mostly a Jewish art form".[63] The involvement of Jews in Central European theatre was halted during the rise of the Nazis and the purging of Jews from cultural posts, though many emigrated to Western Europe or the United States and continued working there.

English-language theatre

Rodgers (left) and Hammerstein (right), with Irving Berlin (middle) and Helen Tamiris, watching auditions at the St. James Theatre in 1948
See also:
Association for Jewish Theatre and List of Jewish American playwrights

In the early 20th century the traditions of New York's vibrant Yiddish Theatre District both rivaled and fed into Broadway. In the English-speaking theatre Jewish émigrés brought novel theatrical ideas from Europe, such as the

theatrical realist movement and the philosophy of Konstantin Stanislavski, whose teachings would influence many Jewish American acting teachers such as the Yiddish theatre-trained acting theorist Stella Adler. Jewish immigrants were instrumental in the creation and development of the genre of musical theatre and earlier forms of theatrical entertainment in America, and would innovate the new, distinctly American, art form, the Broadway musical.[64]
Brandeis University Professor Stephen J. Whitfield has commented that "More so than behind the screen, the talent behind the stage was for over half a century virtually the monopoly of one ethnic group. That is... [a] feature which locates Broadway at the center of Jewish culture".[65] New York University Professor Laurence Maslon says that "There would be no American musical without Jews… Their influence is corollary to the influence of black musicians on jazz; there were as many Jews involved in the form".[66] Other writers, such as Jerome Caryn, have noted that musical theatre and other forms of American entertainment are uniquely indebted to the contributions of Jewish Americans, since "there might not have been a modern Broadway without the "Asiatic horde" of comedians, gossip columnists, songwriters, and singers that grew out of the ghetto, whether it was on the Lower East Side, Harlem (a Jewish ghetto before it was a black one), Newark, or Washington, D.C."[67] Likewise, in the analysis of Aaron Kula, director of The Klezmer Company,

…the Jewish experience has always been best expressed by music, and Broadway has always been an integral part of the Jewish American experience… The difference is that one can expand the definition of "Jewish Broadway" to include an interdisciplinary roadway with a wide range of artistic activities packed onto one avenue—theatre, opera, symphony, ballet, publishing companies, choirs, synagogues and more. This vibrant landscape reflects the life, times and creative output of the Jewish American artist.[68]

In the 19th and early 20th centuries the European

Florenz Ziegfeld dominated the theatrical scene with his Follies
.

Lee Strasberg

By 1910 Jews (the vast majority of them immigrants from Eastern Europe) already composed a quarter of the population of New York City, and almost immediately Jewish artists and intellectuals began to show their influence on the cultural life of that city, and through time, the country as a whole. Likewise, while the modern musical can best be described as a fusion of operetta, earlier American entertainment and African-American culture and music, as well as Jewish culture and music, the actual authors of the first "book musicals" were the Jewish

"Golden Age" of musical theatre were Jewish. Since the Tony Award for Best Original Score was instituted in 1947, approximately 70% of nominated scores and 60% of winning scores were by Jewish composers. Of successful British and French musical writers both in the West End and Broadway, Claude-Michel Schönberg and Lionel Bart
are Jewish, among others.

One explanation of the affinity of Jewish composers and playwrights to the musical is that "traditional Jewish religious music was most often led by a single singer, a cantor while Christians emphasize choral singing."[72] Many of these writers used the musical to explore issues relating to

Italian Catholic.[74]

The ranks of prominent Jewish producers, directors, designers and performers include

Max Reinhardt, Jerome Robbins, the Shubert family and Julie Taymor. Jewish playwrights have also contributed to non-musical drama and theatre, both Broadway and regional. Edna Ferber, Moss Hart, Lillian Hellman, Arthur Miller and Neil Simon are only some of the prominent Jewish playwrights in American theatrical history. Approximately 34% of the plays and musicals that have won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama were written and composed by Jewish Americans.[75]

The

Association for Jewish Theater
is a contemporary organization that includes both American and international theaters that focus on theater with Jewish content. It has also expanded to include Jewish playwrights.

Hebrew and Israeli theatre

Habima theater, 2021

The earliest known

Schiller
, giving the characters Jewish names and transplanting the plot and setting to within a Jewish context.

Modern Hebrew theatre and drama, however, began with the development of

Cameri Theatre, which is "Israel's first and leading repertory theatre".[80]

Judeo-Tat theatre

Main article:
Judeo-Tat theatre
"Acting troupe in the play Ashig Garib. Judeo-Tat theatre. Derbent, USSR. 1984."
Acting troupe in the play Ashig Garib. Judeo-Tat theatre. Derbent, USSR. 1984. First row - from left to right: Katya, Bikel Matatova. Second row - from left to right: musician Israel Izrailov, Roman Izyaev, Avshalum Nakhshunov, Raziil Ilyaguev, Abram Avdalimov. Third row - from left to right: Ilizir Abramov, Anatoly Yusupov, Israel Tsvaygenbaum.

The first theatrical event by Mountain Jews took place in December 1903,[81] when Asaf Agarunov, a teacher and a Zionist, staged a story by Naum Shoykovich, translated from Hebrew, "The Burn for Burn," and staged it in honor of schoolteacher Nagdimuna ben Simona's (Shimunov) wedding.[81]

In 1918, a drama studio was opened in Derbent, Soviet Union headed by Rabbi Yashaiyo Rabinovich.[81]

In 1935, the first Soviet Union theatre opened in Derbent, which included three troupes – Russian, Mountain Jews and Turk. It was based on drama circles, which were led by Manashir and Khanum Shalumov. Initially, in the circle, men played the female roles. Later, women began to take part in the theatre.[82] In 1939, the Judeo-Tat theatre was the winner of the festival of theatres in Dagestan.

During World War II, most of the actors were drafted into the army. Many theatre actors died in the war.[83] In 1943, the theatre resumed its work, and in 1948 it was closed. The official reason was its unprofitability.[83]

In the 1960s, the theatre resumed its activities and experienced its second heyday. The actress, Akhso Ilyaguevna Shalumova (1909-1985), "Honored Artist of the

Juhuri:Шими Дербенди) - Shimi Derbendi's wife - Shahnugor, based on the stories of writer Hizgil Avshalumov.[83]

In the 1970s, the People's Judeo-Tat theatre was organized. For many years, its director was Abram Avdalimov, "Honored Cultural Worker of the Dagestan ASSR," singer, actor and playwright. His successor was Roman Izyaev, who was awarded the Order of the Badge of Honour for his meritorious service.[83]

In the 1990s, the Judeo-Tat theatre experienced another crisis: it rarely held performances and did not have any premieres. Only in 2000, when it became a municipal theater, was it able to resume its activity. From 2000 to 2002, the theatre was headed by actor and musician Raziil Semenovich Ilyaguev (1945-2016), "Honored Worker of Culture of the Republic of Dagestan." For the next two years the theatre was headed by Alesya Isakova.

In 2004, Lev Yakovlevich Manakhimov (1950-2021), "Honored Artist of the Republic of Dagestan," became the artistic director of the theatre. After the death of Manakhimov, Boris Yudaev became the head of the theatre.

Cinema

See also: Cinema of Israel, List of Jewish film directors, and List of Jewish American media executives

In the era when Yiddish theatre was still a major force in the world of theatre, over 100 films were made in Yiddish. Many are now lost. Prominent films included

Lang ist der Weg (1948), and God, Man and Devil
(1950).

The roster of Jewish entrepreneurs in the English-language American film industry is legendary:

the Warner Brothers, David O. Selznick, Marcus Loew, and Adolph Zukor, Fox to name just a few, and continuing into recent times with such industry giants as super-agent Michael Ovitz, Michael Eisner, Lew Wasserman, Jeffrey Katzenberg, Steven Spielberg, and David Geffen. However, few of these brought a specifically Jewish sensibility either to the art of film or, with the sometime exception of Spielberg, to their choice of subject matter. The historian Eric Hobsbawm described the situation as follows:[84]

It would be ... pointless to look for consciously Jewish elements in the songs of Irving Berlin or the Hollywood movies of the era of the great studios, all of which were run by immigrant Jews: their object, in which they succeeded, was precisely to make songs or films which found a specific expression for 100 per cent Americanness.

A more specifically Jewish sensibility can be seen in the films of the Marx Brothers, Mel Brooks, or Woody Allen; other examples of specifically Jewish films from the Hollywood film industry are the Barbra Streisand vehicle Yentl (1983), or John Frankenheimer's The Fixer (1968). More recently, Call Me By Your Name (2017) can be given as an example of a movie with Jewish sensibility. Jewish film festivals are nowadays conducted in many major cities around the world as vehicles of introducing such films to wider audiences, including among others the Boston JFF, San Francisco JFF, Jerusalem JFF, etc

Radio and television

The first radio chains, the

Yiddish language
radio, with its "golden age" from the 1930s to the 1950s.

Although there is little specifically Jewish television in the United States (National Jewish Television, largely religious, broadcasts only three hours a week), Jews have been involved in American television from its earliest days. From Sid Caesar and Milton Berle to Joan Rivers, Gilda Radner, and Andy Kaufman to Billy Crystal to Jerry Seinfeld, Jewish stand-up comedians have been icons of American television. Other Jews that held a prominent role in early radio and television were Eddie Cantor, Al Jolson, Jack Benny, Walter Winchell and David Susskind. More figures are Larry King, Michael Savage and Howard Stern. In the analysis of Paul Johnson, "The Broadway musical, radio and TV were all examples of a fundamental principle in Jewish diaspora history: Jews opening up a completely new field in business and culture, a tabula rasa on which to set their mark, before other interests had a chance to take possession, erect guild or professional fortifications and deny them entry."[86]

One of the first televised

situation comedies, The Goldbergs was set in a specifically Jewish milieu in the Bronx. While the overt Jewish milieu of The Goldbergs was unusual for an American television series, there were a few other examples, such as Brooklyn Bridge (1991–1993) and Bridget Loves Bernie. Jews have also played an enormous role among the creators and writers of television comedies: Woody Allen, Mel Brooks, Selma Diamond, Larry Gelbart, Carl Reiner, and Neil Simon all wrote for Sid Caesar; Reiner's son Rob Reiner worked with Norman Lear on All in the Family (which often engaged antisemitism and other issues of prejudice); Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld created the hit sitcom Seinfeld, Lorne Michaels, Al Franken,, Rosie Shuster, and Alan Zweibel of Saturday Night Live
breathed new life into the variety show in the 1970s.

More recently, American Jews have been instrumental to "novelistic" television series such as

show runner. Matthew Weiner produced the fifth and sixth seasons of The Sopranos and later created Mad Men
. More remarkable contributors are
Once Upon a Time (TV Series). There is also a significant role of Jews in acting by actors such as Sarah Jessica Parker, William Shatner, Leonard Nimoy, Mila Kunis, Zac Efron, Hank Azaria, David Duchovny, Fred Savage, Zach Braff, Noah Wyle, Adam Brody, Katey Sagal, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Alyson Hannigan, Michelle Trachtenberg, David Schwimmer, Lisa Kudrow and Mayim Bialik
.

Music

Main article: Jewish music
See also: Secular Jewish music

Jewish musical contributions also tend to reflect the cultures of the countries in which Jews live, the most notable examples being

Israeli folk music, Klezmer, Sephardic and Ladino music, and Mizrahi music
.

Classical music

The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra's 70th Anniversary

Before

Grand Opera. The most prolific composers of this genre included Giacomo Meyerbeer, Fromental Halévy, and the later Jacques Offenbach; Halevy's La Juive was based on Scribe's libretto
very loosely connected to the Jewish experience.

While orchestral and operatic music works by Jewish composers would in general be considered secular, many Jewish (as well as non-Jewish) composers have incorporated Jewish themes and motives into their music. Sometimes this is done covertly, such as the klezmer band music that many critics and observers believe lies in the third movement of Mahler's Symphony No. 1, and this type of Jewish reference was most common during the 19th century when openly displaying one's Jewishness would most likely hamper a Jew's chances at assimilation. During the 20th century, however, many Jewish composers wrote music with direct Jewish references and themes, e.g. David Amram (Symphony – "Songs of the Soul"), Leonard Bernstein (Kaddish Symphony, Chichester Psalms), Ernest Bloch (Schelomo), Arnold Schoenberg, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco (Violin Concerto no. 2) Kurt Weill (The Eternal Road) and Hugo Weisgall (Psalm of the Instant Dove).

Giacomo Meyerbeer
(1791–1864)		 Fanny Mendelssohn
(1805–1847)		 Felix Mendelssohn
(1809–1847)		 Charles-Valentin Alkan
(1813–1888)		 Jacques Offenbach
(1819–1880)		 Anton Rubinstein
(1829–1894)		 Gustav Mahler
(1860–1911)		 Clara Haskil
(1895–1960)

In the late twentieth century, prominent composers like Morton Feldman, Gyorgy Ligeti or Alfred Schnittke gave significant contributions to the history of contemporary music.

Popular music

The

jazz standards were predominantly Jewish, including Harold Arlen, Jerome Kern, George Gershwin, Frank Loesser, Richard Rodgers and Irving Berlin. Popular music as of today for the Jewish World at large mainly stems from Israeli Music, more specifically Mizrahi Music. Popular Jewish artists today include Omer Adam, Noa Kirel, Avior Malasa, A-WA, Eden Alene, Eyal Golan, Debbie Friedman, Barbra Streisand
and others.

Dance

Main article: Jewish dance
A Bukharan Jewish dance performed by members of the Rina Nikova ballet in the citadel of Jerusalem - 1 May 1946.

Deriving from Biblical traditions, Jewish dance has long been used by Jews as a medium for the expression of joy and other communal emotions.[88] Each Jewish diasporic community developed its own dance traditions for wedding celebrations and other distinguished events. For Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe, for example, dances, whose names corresponded to the different forms of klezmer music that were played, were an obvious staple of the wedding ceremony of the shtetl.[89] Jewish dances both were influenced by surrounding Gentile traditions and Jewish sources preserved over time. "Nevertheless the Jews practiced a corporeal expressive language that was highly differentiated from that of the non-Jewish peoples of their neighborhood, mainly through motions of the hands and arms, with more intricate legwork by the younger men."[90] In general, however, in most religiously traditional communities, members of the opposite sex dancing together or dancing at times other than at these events was frowned upon.

Humor

Main article: Jewish humor

Jewish humor is the long tradition of humor in Judaism dating back to the Torah and the Midrash, but generally refers to the more recent stream of verbal, frequently self-deprecating and often anecdotal humor originating in Europe.[91] Jewish humor took root in the United States over the last hundred years, beginning with vaudeville[citation needed], and continuing through radio, stand-up, film, and television.[92] A significant number of American comedians have been or are Jewish.[citation needed] Notable Jewish-American comedians include Jerry Seinfeld, Larry David, Sammy Davis Jr, Rachel Dratch, Gilbert Gottfried, Ilana Glazer, Jan Murray, Julie Klausner, Don Rickles, Andy Samberg, Gene Wilder, Groucho Marx, Gianmarco Soresi, and several others.

Visual arts

Main article: Jewish art
See also:
List of Jews in the visual arts
Further information: Visual arts in Israel
"Death of King Saul", by Elie Marcuse (1848). (Tel Aviv Museum of Art)

Compared to music or theater, there is less of a specifically Jewish tradition in the visual arts. The most likely and accepted reason is that, as has been previously shown with Jewish music and literature, before

ISIL in 2017, as well as the Jewish catacombs in Rome.[97][98]

Zodiac Wheel Mosaic in the great synagogue of Tzippori (5th century) in Galilee, Israel

A Jewish tradition of

Beit She'arim
shows a mixture of Jewish and Hellenistic motifs. However, for a period of several centuries between about 700 and 1100 CE there are scarcely any survivals of identifiably Jewish art.

Yemenite Jewish silversmiths
developed a distinctive style of finely wrought silver that is admired for its artistry. Johnson again summarizes this sudden change from a limited participation by Jews in visual art (as in many other arts) to a large movement by them into this branch of European cultural life:

Again, the arrival of the Jewish artist was a strange phenomenon. It is true that, over the centuries, there had been many animals (though few humans) depicted in Jewish art: lions on

ornament, printed at Vitebsk in 1920, was similar to Chagall's own bestiary. But the resistance of pious Jews to portraying the living human image was still strong at the beginning of the 20th century.[100]

Dura Europos synagogue
, circa 250 CE

There were few Jewish secular artists in Europe prior to the

Modernism in the 20th century. There were many Jewish artists in the 19th century, but Jewish artistic activity boomed during the end of World War I. The Jewish artistic Renaissance has its roots in the 1901 Fifth Zionist Congress, which included an art exhibition featuring Jewish artists E.M. Lilien and Hermann Struck. The exhibition helped legitimize art as an expression of Jewish culture.[101] According to Nadine Nieszawer, "Until 1905, Jews were always plunged into their books but from the first Russian Revolution, they became emancipated, committed themselves in politics and became artists. A real Jewish cultural rebirth".[102]
Individual Jews figured in the modern artistic movements of Europe— With the exception of those living in isolated Jewish communities, most Jews listed here as contributing to secular Jewish culture also participated in the cultures of the peoples they lived with and nations they lived in. In most cases, however, the work and lives of these people did not exist in two distinct cultural spheres but rather in one that incorporated elements of both.

Itzhak Danziger"Nimrod", 1939 The Israel Museum
, Jerusalem Collection

During the early 20th century, Jews figured particularly prominently in the École de Paris centered in the Montparnasse movement (including Chaim Soutine, Marc Chagall, Jules Pascin, Yitzhak Frenkel Frenel and Michel Kikoine),[103] and after World War II among the abstract expressionists: Alexander Bogen, Helen Frankenthaler, Adolph Gottlieb, Philip Guston, Al Held, Lee Krasner, Barnett Newman, Milton Resnick, Jack Tworkov, Mark Rothko, and Louis Schanker, as well as among Contemporary artists, Modernists and Postmodernists.[104] Many Russian Jews were prominent in the art of scenic design, particularly the aforementioned Chagall and Aronson, as well as the revolutionary Léon Bakst, who like the other two also painted. One Mexican Jewish artist was Pedro Friedeberg; historians disagree as to whether Frida Kahlo's father was Jewish or Lutheran. Among major artists Chagall may be the most specifically Jewish in his themes. But as art fades into graphic design, Jewish names and themes become more prominent: Leonard Baskin, Al Hirschfeld, Peter Max, Ben Shahn, Art Spiegelman and Saul Steinberg.

The collage artist

R.B. Kitaj published his "First Diasporist Manifesto", a short book in which he analysed how his art was based on his alienation as a Jew born in Cleveland, Ohio and living in London. In 2007, a second illustrated stream of consciousness book followed, "The Second Diasporist Manifesto."[107]

Jews have also played a very important role in media other than painting; their involvement in sculpture came rather later, perhaps due to lingering feelings against "graven images". But there were many notable Jewish sculptors in the later 19th and 20th centuries, including Moses Jacob Ezekiel (American, d 1917), Sir Jacob Epstein (American-British, d 1959), Ossip Zadkine (French, d 1967) Naum Gabo (Russian, d 1977), Oscar Nemon (Croatian, d 1985), Louise Nevelson (American, d 1988), Herbert Ferber (American, d 1991).

In photography some notable figures are André Kertész, Robert Frank, Helmut Newton, Garry Winogrand, Cindy Sherman, Steve Lehman,[108] and Adi Nes; in installation art and street art some notable figures are Sigalit Landau,[109] Dede,[110] and Michal Rovner.

Camille Pissarro
(1830–1903)		 Amedeo Modigliani
(1884–1920)		 Diego Rivera
(1886–1957)		 Alexander Bogen
(1916–2010)		 Marc Chagall
(1887–1985) 		Isaac Frenkel Frenel
(1899–1981) 		Chaim Soutine
(1893–1943)

Comics, cartoons, and animation

See also: List of Jewish American cartoonists
Stan Lee (left) and Jack Kirby (right) made a major contribution to the American comic book industry. Their work includes The Avengers, Captain America, Fantastic Four, Spider-Man, and X-Men

Graphic art, as expressed in the art of comics, has been a key field for Jewish artists as well. In the Golden and Silver ages of American comic books, the Jewish role was overwhelming and a large number of the medium's foremost creators have been Jewish.[111]

Max Gaines was a pioneering figure in the creation of the modern comic book when in 1935 he published the first one called Famous Funnies.[112] In 1939, he founded, with Jack Liebowitz and Harry Donenfeld, All-American Publications (the AA Group).[113] The publication is known for the creation of several superheroes such as the original Atom, Flash, Green Lantern, Hawkman, and Wonder Woman. Donenfeld and Liebowitz were also the owners of National Allied Publications which distributed Detective Comics and Action Comics. That company was also a precursor of DC Comics.

In 1939, the pulp magazine publisher Martin Goodman formed Timely Publications,[114] a company to be known, since the 1960s, as Marvel Comics. At Marvel, Artists such as Stan Lee, Jack Kirby,[115] Larry Lieber and Joe Simon created a large variety of characters and cultural icons including Spider-Man, Hulk, Captain America, Iron Man, Thor, Daredevil, and the teams Fantastic Four, Avengers, X-Men (including many of its characters) and S.H.I.E.L.D.. Stan Lee attributed the Jewish role in comics to the Jewish culture.[116]

At DC Comics Jewish role was significant as well; the character of Superman, which was created by the Jewish artists Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel,[111] is partly based on the biblical figure of Samson.[117] It was also suggested the Superman is partly influenced by Moses,[118][119] and other Jewish elements. More at DC Comics are

Iron Fist
. Many of those involved in the later ages of comics are also Jewish, such as
Ragman, Legion, and Moon Knight, of whom were and are influenced by events in Jewish history and elements of Jewish life.[120]

In 1944, Max Gaines founded EC Comics.[121] The company is known for specializing in horror fiction, crime fiction, satire, military fiction and science fiction from the 1940s through the mid-1950s, notably the Tales from the Crypt series, The Haunt of Fear, The Vault of Horror, Crime SuspenStories and Shock SuspenStories. Jewish artists that are associated with the publisher include Al Feldstein, Dave Berg, and Jack Kamen.

Eisner Award
was named in his honor, and is given to recognize achievements each year in the comics medium.

Ralph Bakshi is a director of animated and live-action films, known for films such as Wizards (1977), The Lord of the Rings (1978), and Fire and Ice (1983)

In 1952, William Gaines and Harvey Kurtzman founded Mad, an American humor magazine. It was widely imitated and influential, affecting satirical media as well as the cultural landscape of the 20th century, with editor Al Feldstein increasing readership to more than two million during its 1970s circulation peak.[123] Other known cartoonists are Lee Falk creator of The Phantom and Mandrake the Magician; The Hebrew comics of Michael Netzer creator of Uri-On and Uri Fink creator of Zbeng!; William Steig, creator of Shrek!; Daniel Clowes, creator of Eightball; Art Spiegelman creator of graphic novel Maus and Raw (with Françoise Mouly).

In animation, Jewish animators role is expressed by many: Genndy Tartakovsky is the creator of several animation TV series such as Dexter's Laboratory and Samurai Jack;[124] Matt Stone co-creator of South Park; David Hilberman who helped animate Bambi and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs; Friz Freleng, Looney Tunes;C. H. Greenblatt,Chowder; and Harvey Beaks; Ralph Bakshi, Fritz the Cat, Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures, Wizards, The Lord of the Rings, Heavy Traffic, Coonskin, Hey Good Lookin', Fire and Ice, and Cool World;[125] Alex Hirsch, creator of Gravity Falls; Dave Fleischer and Lou Fleischer, founders of Fleischer Studios; Max Fleischer, animation of Betty Boop, Popeye and Superman; Rebecca Sugar, creator of Steven Universe.[126] Several companies producing animation were founded by Jews, such as DreamWorks, which its products include Shrek, Madagascar, Kung Fu Panda and The Prince of Egypt; Warner Bros., whose animation division is known for cartoons such as Looney Tunes, Tiny Toon Adventures, Animaniacs, Pinky and the Brain and Freakazoid! .

Cuisine

Khamin Stew -- A Sephardic Jewish variation of Cholent
Main article: Jewish cuisine

Jewish cooking combines the food of many cultures in which Jews have lived, including

tzimmis,[130] cholent, Malawach[131] and Matzah balls,[132] make up a variety of Jewish cuisine
.

Philo-Semitism

Main article:
Philo-Semitism

Philo-Semitism (also spelled philosemitism) or Judeophilia is an interest in, respect for and an appreciation, or in some cases a fetishization, of Jewish people, their history, and their culture and the influence of Judaism, particularly on the part of a gentile.[133] Within the Jewish community, philo-Semitism includes an interest in Jewish culture and a love of things that are considered Jewish.[134]

Very few Jews live in East Asian countries, but Jews are viewed in an especially positive light in some of them, partly owing to their shared wartime experiences during the Second World War. Examples include South Korea[135] and China.[136] In general, Jews are positively stereotyped as being intelligent, business savvy and committed to family values and responsibilities, but in the Western world, the first of the two aforementioned stereotypes more frequently have the negatively interpreted equivalents of guile and greed. In South Korean primary schools, students are required to read the Talmud.[135]

See also

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Sources

Further reading

External links

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