Jewish diaspora
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The Jewish diaspora (Hebrew: תְּפוּצָה, romanized: təfūṣā) or exile (Hebrew: גָּלוּת gālūṯ; Yiddish: golus)[a] is the dispersion of Israelites or Jews out of their ancient ancestral homeland (the Land of Israel) and their subsequent settlement in other parts of the globe.[3][4]
In terms of the
The first exile was the
A Jewish diaspora existed for several centuries before the fall of the
In 132 CE, Bar Kokhba led a rebellion against Hadrian, a revolt connected with the renaming of Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina. After four years of devastating warfare, the uprising was suppressed, and Jews were forbidden access to Jerusalem.
During the
Origins and uses of the terms
Diaspora has been a common phenomenon for many peoples since antiquity, but what is particular about the Jewish instance is the pronounced negative, religious, indeed metaphysical connotations traditionally attached to dispersion and exile (galut), two conditions which were conflated.[8] The English term diaspora, which entered usage as late as 1876, and the Hebrew word galut though covering a similar semantic range, bear some distinct differences in connotation. The former has no traditional equivalent in Hebrew usage.[9]
Steven Bowman argues that diaspora in antiquity connoted emigration from an ancestral mother city, with the emigrant community maintaining its cultural ties with the place of origin. Just as the Greek city exported its surplus population, so did Jerusalem, while remaining the cultural and religious centre or metropolis (ir-va-em be-yisrael) for the outlying communities. It could have two senses in Biblical terms, the idea of becoming a 'guiding light unto the nations' by dwelling in the midst of gentiles, or of enduring the pain of exile from one's homeland. The conditions of diaspora in the former case were premised on the free exercise of citizenship or resident alien status. Galut implies by comparison living as a denigrated minority, stripped of such rights, in the host society.[10] Sometimes diaspora and galut are defined as 'voluntary' as opposed to 'involuntary' exile.[11] Diaspora, it has been argued, has a political edge, referring to geopolitical dispersion, which may be involuntary, but which can assume, under different conditions, a positive nuance. Galut is more teleological, and connotes a sense of uprootedness.[12] Daniel Boyarin defines diaspora as a state where people have a dual cultural allegiance, productive of a double consciousness, and in this sense a cultural condition not premised on any particular history, as opposed to galut, which is more descriptive of an existential situation, that properly of exile, conveying a particular psychological outlook.[13]
The Greek word διασπορά (dispersion) first appears as a
galuth and diaspora are drawn from two completely different lexicons. The first refers to episodes, precise and datable, in the history of the people of Israel, when the latter was subjected to a foreign occupation, such as that of Babylon, in which most of the occurrences are found. The second, perhaps with a single exception that remains debatable, is never used to speak of the past and does not concern Babylon; the instrument of dispersion is never the historical sovereign of another country. Diaspora is the word for chastisement, but the dispersion in question has not occurred yet: it is potential, conditional on the Jews not respecting the law of God. . . It follows that diaspora belongs, not to the domain of history, but of theology.'[17]
In
In modern times, the contrasting meanings of diaspora/galut have given rise to controversy among Jews. Bowman states this in the following terms,
(Diaspora) follows the Greek usage and is considered a positive phenomenon that continues the prophetic call of Israel to be a 'light unto the nations' and establish homes and families among the gentiles. The prophet Jeremiah issues this call to the preexilic emigrants in Egypt. . . Galut is a religious–nationalist term, which implies exile from the homeland as a result of collective sins, an exile that will be redeemed at YHWH’s pleasure.
Jewish messianism is closely connected with the concept of galut.’[10]
In Zionist debates a distinction was made between galut and golus/gola. The latter denoted social and political exile, whereas the former, while consequential on the latter, was a psycho-spiritual framework that was not wholly dependent on the conditions of life in diasporic exile, since one could technically remain in galut even in
Pre-Roman diaspora
In 722 BCE, the
After the overthrow of the Kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE by Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (see Babylonian captivity) and the deportation of a considerable portion of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, the Jews had two principal cultural centers: Babylonia and the land of Israel.[25][26]
Deportees returned to the Samaria after the Neo-Babylonian Empire was in turn conquered by Cyrus the Great. The biblical book of Ezra includes two texts said to be decrees allowing the deported Jews to return to their homeland after decades and ordering the Temple rebuilt. The differences in content and tone of the two decrees, one in Hebrew and one in Aramaic, have caused some scholars to question their authenticity.[27] The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus,[28] but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.[28] Lester L. Grabbe asserted that the "alleged decree of Cyrus"[29] regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic", but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a single event. There is no sudden expansion of the population base of 30,000 and no credible indication of any special interest in Yehud.[30]
Although most of the Jewish people during this period, especially the wealthy families, were to be found in Babylonia, the existence they led there, under the successive rulers of the
The first
While communities in Alexandria and Rome dated back to before the
Early diaspora populations
As early as the third century BCE Jewish communities sprang up in the Aegean islands, Greece, Asia Minor, Cyrenaica, Italy and Egypt.[34]: 8–11 In Palestine, under the favourable auspices of the long period of peace—almost a whole century—which followed the advent of the Ptolemies, the new ways were to flourish. By means of all kinds of contacts, and particularly thanks to the development of commerce, Hellenism infiltrated on all sides in varying degrees. The ports of the Mediterranean coast were indispensable to commerce and, from the very beginning of the Hellenistic period, underwent great development. In the Western diaspora Greek quickly became dominant in Jewish life and little sign remains of profound contact with Hebrew or Aramaic, the latter probably being the more prevalent. Jews migrated to new Greek settlements that arose in the Eastern Mediterranean and former subject areas of the Persian Empire on the heels of Alexander the Great's conquests, spurred on by the opportunities they expected to find.[35] The proportion of Jews in the diaspora in relation to the size of the nation as a whole increased steadily throughout the Hellenistic era and reached astonishing dimensions in the early Roman period, particularly in Alexandria. It was not least for this reason that the Jewish people became a major political factor, especially since the Jews in the diaspora, notwithstanding strong cultural, social and religious tensions, remained firmly united with their homeland.[36] Smallwood writes that, 'It is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement in Puteoli attested in 4 BCE went back to the late (pre-Roman Empire) Roman Republic or early Empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce."[37] Many Jews migrated to Rome from Alexandria due to flourishing trade relations between the cities.[38] Dating the numerous settlements is difficult. Some settlements may have resulted from Jewish emigration following the defeat of Jewish revolts. Others, such as the Jewish community in Rome, were far older, dating back to at least the mid second century BCE, although it expanded greatly following Pompey’s campaign in 62 BCE. In 6 CE the Romans annexed Judaea. Only the Jews in Babylonia remained outside of Roman rule.[39]: 168 Unlike the Greek speaking Hellenized Jews in the west the Jewish communities in Babylonian and Judea continued the use of Aramaic as a primary language.[24]
As early as the middle of the 2nd century BCE the Jewish author of the third book of the
King
To judge by the later accounts of wholesale massacres in
Under the Roman Empire
The 13th-century author Bar Hebraeus gave a figure of 6,944,000 Jews in the Roman world. Salo Wittmayer Baron considered the figure convincing.[40] The figure of seven million within and one million outside the Roman world in the mid-first century became widely accepted, including by Louis Feldman. However, contemporary scholars now accept that Bar Hebraeus based his figure on a census of total Roman citizens and thus, included non-Jews. The figure of 6,944,000 being recorded in Eusebius' Chronicon.[41]: 90, 94, 104–05 [42] Louis Feldman, previously an active supporter of the figure, now states that he and Baron were mistaken.[43]: 185 Philo gives a figure of one million Jews living in Egypt. John R. Bartlett rejects Baron's figures entirely, arguing that we have no clue as to the size of the Jewish demographic in the ancient world.[41]: 97–103 The Romans did not distinguish between Jews inside and outside of the Land of Israel/Judaea. They collected an annual temple tax from Jews both in and outside of Israel. The revolts in and suppression of diaspora communities in Egypt, Libya and Crete in 115–117 CE had a severe impact on the Jewish diaspora.
Destruction of Judea
Roman rule in Judea began in 63 BCE with the
Exactly when Roman Anti-Judaism began is a question of scholarly debate, however historian Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson has proposed that the "Crisis under Caligula" (37–41) was the "first open break between Rome and the Jews".[51] Meanwhile, the Kitos War, a rebellion by Jewish diaspora communities in Roman territories in the Eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia, led to the destruction of Jewish communities in Crete, Cyprus, and North Africa in 117 CE, and consequently the dispersal of Jews already living outside of Judea to further reaches of the Empire.[52]
The military defeats of the Jews in Judaea in 70 CE and again in 135 CE, with large numbers of Jewish captives from Judea sold into slavery and an increase in voluntary Jewish emigration from Judea as a result of the wars, meant a drop in Palestine's Jewish population was balanced by a rise in diaspora numbers. Jewish prisoners sold as slaves in the diaspora and their children were eventually manumitted and joined local free communities.
Palestine and Babylon were both great centers of Jewish scholarship during this time, but tensions between scholars in these two communities grew as many Jewish scholars in Palestine feared that the centrality of the land to the Jewish religion would be lost with continuing Jewish emigration. Many Palestinian sages refused to consider Babylonian scholars their equals and would not ordain Babylonian students in their academies, fearing they would return to Babylon as rabbis. Significant Jewish emigration to Babylon adversely affected the Jewish academies of Palestine, and by the end of the third century they were reliant on donations from Babylon.[70]
It is commonly claimed that the diaspora began with Rome's twofold crushing of Jewish national aspirations. David Aberbach, for one, has argued that much of the European Jewish diaspora, by which he means exile or voluntary migration, originated with the Jewish wars which occurred between 66 and 135 CE.[71]: 224 Martin Goodman states that it is only after the destruction of Jerusalem that Jews are found in northern Europe and along the western Mediterranean coast.[72] This widespread popular belief holds that there was a sudden expulsion of Jews from Judea/Syria Palaestina and that this was crucial for the establishment of the diaspora.[73] Israel Bartal contends that Shlomo Sand is incorrect in ascribing this view to most Jewish study scholars,[74] instead arguing that this view is negligible among serious Jewish study scholars.[75] These scholars argue that the growth of diaspora Jewish communities was a gradual process that occurred over the centuries, starting with the Assyrian destruction of Israel, the Babylonian destruction of Judah, the Roman destruction of Judea, and the subsequent rule of Christians and Muslims. After the revolt, the Jewish religious and cultural center shifted to the Babylonian Jewish community and its scholars. For the generations that followed, the destruction of the Second Temple event came to represent a fundamental insight about the Jews who had become a dispossessed and persecuted people for much of their history.[76]
Erich S. Gruen maintains that focusing on the destruction of the Temple misses the point that already before this, the diaspora was well established. Compulsory dislocation of people cannot explain more than a fraction of the eventual diaspora.[77] Avrum Ehrlich also states that already well before the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, more Jews lived in the Diaspora than in Israel.[78] Jonathan Adelman estimated that around 60% of Jews lived in the diaspora during the Second Temple period.[79] According to Gruen:
Perhaps three to five million Jews dwelled outside Palestine in the roughly four centuries that stretched from Alexander to Titus. The era of the Second Temple brought the issue into sharp focus, inescapably so. The Temple still stood, a reminder of the hallowed past, and, through most of the era, a Jewish regime existed in Palestine. Yet the Jews of the diaspora, from Italy to Iran, far outnumbered those in the homeland. Although Jerusalem loomed large in their self-perception as a nation, few of them had seen it, and few were likely to.[80]
Israel Yuval claimed the Babylonian captivity created a promise of return in the Jewish consciousness which had the effect of enhancing the Jewish self-perception of Exile after the destruction of the Second Temple, albeit their dispersion was due to an array of non-exilic factors.[81]
Byzantine, Islamic, and Crusader era
In the 4th century, the Roman Empire split and Palestine came under the control of the Byzantine Empire. There was still a significant Jewish population there, and Jews probably constituted a majority of the population until some time after Constantine converted to Christianity in the 4th century.[82] The ban on Jewish settlement in Jerusalem was maintained. There was a minor Jewish rebellion against a corrupt governor from 351 to 352 which was put down. In the 5th century, the collapse of the Western Roman Empire resulted in Christian migration into Palestine and the development of a firm Christian majority. Judaism was the only non-Christian religion tolerated, but the Jews were discriminated against in various ways. They were prohibited from building new houses of worship, holding public office, or owning slaves.[83] The 7th century saw the Jewish revolt against Heraclius, which broke out in 614 during the Byzantine–Sasanian War. It was the last serious attempt by Jews to gain autonomy in the Land of Israel prior to modern times. Jewish rebels aided the Persians in capturing Jerusalem, where the Jews were permitted autonomous rule until 617, when the Persians reneged on their alliance. After Byzantine Emperor Heraclius promised to restore Jewish rights, the Jews aided him in ousting the Persians. Heraclius subsequently went back on his word and ordered a general massacre of the Jewish population, devastating the Jewish communities of Jerusalem and the Galilee. As a result, many Jews fled to Egypt.[84][85]
In 638, Palestine came under Muslim rule with the Muslim conquest of the Levant. One estimate placed the Jewish population of Palestine at between 300,000 and 400,000 at the time.[86] However, this is contrary to other estimates which place it at 150,000 to 200,000 at the time of the revolt against Heraclius.[87][88] According to historian Moshe Gil, the majority of the population was Jewish or Samaritan.[89] The land gradually came to have an Arab majority as Arab tribes migrated there. Jewish communities initially grew and flourished. Umar allowed and encouraged Jews to settle in Jerusalem. It was the first time in about 500 years that Jews were allowed to freely enter and worship in their holiest city. In 717, new restrictions were imposed against non-Muslims that negatively affected the Jews. Heavy taxes on agricultural land forced many Jews to migrate from rural areas to towns. Social and economic discrimination caused significant Jewish emigration from Palestine, and Muslim civil wars in the 8th and 9th centuries pushed many Jews out of the country. By the end of the 11th century the Jewish population of Palestine had declined substantially.[90][91]
During the First Crusade, Jews in Palestine, along with Muslims, were indiscriminately massacred and sold into slavery by the Crusaders. The majority of Jerusalem's Jewish population was killed during the Crusader Siege of Jerusalem and the few thousand survivors were sold into slavery. Some of the Jews sold into slavery later had their freedom bought by Jewish communities in Italy and Egypt, and the redeemed slaves were taken to Egypt. Some Jewish prisoners of war were also deported to Apulia in southern Italy.[92][93][94]
Relief for the Jewish population of Palestine came when the
The result of these waves of emigration and expulsion was that the Jewish population of Palestine was reduced to a few thousand by the time the
Post-Roman period Jewish diaspora populations
During the
By 1764 there were about 750,000 Jews in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The worldwide Jewish population (comprising the Middle East and the rest of Europe) was estimated at 1.2 million.[98]
Classical period
After the Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE, Judah (יְהוּדָה Yehuda) became a
Middle Ages
Ashkenazi Jews
In 2006, a study by Doron Behar and Karl Skorecki of the Technion and Ramban Medical Center in Haifa, Israel demonstrated that the vast majority of Ashkenazi Jews, both men and women, have Middle Eastern ancestry.
David Goldstein, a Duke University geneticist and director of the Duke Center for Human Genome Variation, has said that the work of the Technion and Ramban team served only to confirm that genetic drift played a major role in shaping Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is inherited in a matrilineal manner. Goldstein argues that the Technion and Ramban mtDNA studies fail to actually establish a statistically significant maternal link between modern Jews and historic Middle Eastern populations. This differs from the patrilineal case, where Goldstein said there is no doubt of a Middle Eastern origin.[104]
In June 2010, Behar et al. "shows that most Jewish samples form a remarkably tight subcluster with common genetic origin, that overlies Druze and Cypriot samples but not samples from other Levantine populations or paired diaspora host populations. In contrast, Ethiopian Jews (
A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by Costa et al., reached the conclusion that the four major female founders and most of the minor female founders had ancestry in prehistoric Europe, rather than the Near East or Caucasus. According to the study these findings 'point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities" and their intermarriage with Jewish men of Middle Eastern origin.[107]
A study by Haber, et al., (2013) noted that while previous studies of the Levant, which had focused mainly on diaspora Jewish populations, showed that the "Jews form a distinctive cluster in the Middle East", these studies did not make clear "whether the factors driving this structure would also involve other groups in the Levant". The authors found strong evidence that modern Levant populations descend from two major apparent ancestral populations. One set of genetic characteristics which is shared with modern-day Europeans and Central Asians is most prominent in the Levant amongst "Lebanese, Armenians, Cypriots, Druze and Jews, as well as Turks, Iranians and Caucasian populations". The second set of inherited genetic characteristics is shared with populations in other parts of the Middle East as well as some African populations. Levant populations in this category today include "Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, as well as North Africans, Ethiopians, Saudis, and Bedouins". Concerning this second component of ancestry, the authors remark that while it correlates with "the pattern of the Islamic expansion", and that "a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners," they also say that "its presence in Lebanese Christians, Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews, Cypriots and Armenians might suggest that its spread to the Levant could also represent an earlier event". The authors also found a strong correlation between religion and apparent ancestry in the Levant:
all Jews (Sephardi and Ashkenazi) cluster in one branch; Druze from Mount Lebanon and Druze from Mount Carmel are depicted on a private branch; and Lebanese Christians form a private branch with the Christian populations of Armenia and Cyprus placing the Lebanese Muslims as an outer group. The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen.[108]
Another 2013 study, made by Doron M. Behar of the Rambam Health Care Campus in Israel and others, suggests that: "Cumulatively, our analyses point strongly to ancestry of Ashkenazi Jews primarily from European and Middle Eastern populations and not from populations in or near the Caucasus region. The combined set of approaches suggests that the observations of Ashkenazi proximity to European and Middle Eastern populations in population structure analyses reflect actual genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to populations with predominantly European and Middle Eastern ancestry components, and lack of visible introgression from the region of the Khazar Khaganate—particularly among the northern Volga and North Caucasus populations—into the Ashkenazi community."[109]
A 2014 study by Fernández et al. found that Ashkenazi Jews display a frequency of haplogroup K in their maternal (mitochondrial) DNA, suggesting an ancient Near Eastern matrilineal origin, similar to the results of the Behar study in 2006. Fernández noted that this observation clearly contradicts the results of the 2013 study led by Costa, Richards et al. that suggested a European source for 3 exclusively Ashkenazi K lineages.[110]
Sephardic Jews
A small number of Sephardic refugees who fled via the Netherlands as Marranos settled in Hamburg and Altona Germany in the early 16th century, eventually appropriating Ashkenazic Jewish rituals into their religious practice. One famous figure from the Sephardic Ashkenazic population is Glückel of Hameln. Some relocated to the United States, establishing the country's first organized community of Jews and erecting the United States' first synagogue. Nevertheless, the majority of Sephardim remained in Spain and Portugal as Conversos, which would also be the fate for those who had migrated to Spanish and Portuguese ruled Latin America. Sephardic Jews evolved to form most of North Africa's Jewish communities of the modern era, as well as the bulk of the Turkish, Syrian, Galilean and Jerusalemite Jews of the Ottoman period.
Mizrahi Jews
Yemenite Jews
Karaite Jews
) as being equally binding on Jews, and mandated by God. In Rabbinical Judaism, the Oral Law forms the basis of religion, morality, and Jewish life. Karaite Jews rely on the use of sound reasoning and the application of linguistic tools to determine the correct meaning of the Tanakh; while Rabbinical Judaism looks towards the Oral law codified in the Talmud, to provide the Jewish community with an accurate understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures.The differences between Karaite and Rabbinic Judaism go back more than a thousand years. Rabbinical Judaism originates from the
Modern era
Israeli Jews
Jews of Israel comprise an increasingly mixed wide range of Jewish communities making aliyah from Europe, North Africa, and elsewhere in the Middle East. While a significant portion of Israeli Jews still retain memories of their Sephardic, Ashkenazi and Mizrahi origins, mixed Jewish marriages among the communities are very common. There are also smaller groups of Yemenite Jews, Indian Jews and others, who still retain a semi-separate communal life. There are also approximately 50,000 adherents of Karaite Judaism, most of whom live in Israel, but their exact numbers are not known, because most Karaites have not participated in any religious censuses. The Beta Israel, though somewhat disputed as the descendants of the ancient Israelites, are widely recognized in Israel as Ethiopian Jews.
American Jews
The ancestry of most
French Jews
The Jews of modern France number around 400,000 persons, largely descendants of North African communities, some of which were Sephardic communities that had come from Spain and Portugal—others were Arab and
Mountain Jews
Mountain Jews are
Bukharan Jews
Bukharan Jews are an ethnic group from Central Asia who historically practised Judaism and spoke Bukhori, a dialect of the Tajik-Persian language.
Kaifeng Jews
The Kaifeng Jews are members of a small Jewish community in Kaifeng, in the Henan province of China who have assimilated into Chinese society while preserving some Jewish traditions and customs.
Cochin Jews
Cochin Jews, also called Malabar Jews, are the oldest group of
Paradesi Jews
Paradesi Jews are mainly the descendants of
The Paradesi Jews of Cochin are a community of Sephardic Jews whose ancestors settled among the larger Cochin Jewish community located in Kerala, a coastal southern state of India.[122]
The Paradesi Jews of
Georgian Jews
The Georgian Jews are considered ethnically and culturally distinct from neighboring Mountain Jews. They were also traditionally a highly separate group from the Ashkenazi Jews in Georgia.
Krymchaks
The Krymchaks are Jewish ethno-religious communities of Crimea derived from Turkic-speaking adherents of Orthodox Judaism.
Anusim
During the history of the Jewish diaspora, Jews who lived in Christian Europe were often attacked by the local Christian population, and they were often
Modern Samaritans
The Samaritans, who comprised a comparatively large group in classical times, now number 745 people, and today they live in two communities in
The Samaritans consider themselves Bnei Yisrael ("Children of Israel" or "Israelites"), but they do not regard themselves as Yehudim (Jews). They view the term "Jews" as a designation for followers of Judaism, which they assert is a related but an altered and amended religion which was brought back by the exiled Israelite returnees, and is therefore not the true religion of the ancient Israelites, which according to them is Samaritanism.
Genetic studies
Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths.[125] In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe, Germany and the French Rhine Valley. This is consistent with Jewish traditions which place most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.[126][127] Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at mitochondrial DNA, are generally more heterogeneous.[128] Scholars such as Harry Ostrer and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel.[129] In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40% of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect."[128] Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of the non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."[130][131][132]
Studies of
The studies also show that persons of
Zionist "negation of the Diaspora"
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According to Eliezer Schweid, the rejection of life in the diaspora is a central assumption in all currents of Zionism.[140] Underlying this attitude was the feeling that the diaspora restricted the full growth of Jewish national life. For instance the poet Hayim Nahman Bialik wrote:
And my heart weeps for my unhappy people ...
How burned, how blasted must our portion be,
If seed like this is withered in its soil. ...
According to Schweid, Bialik meant that the "seed" was the potential of the Jewish people. Preserved in the diaspora, this seed could only give rise to deformed results; however, once conditions changed the seed could still provide a plentiful harvest.[141]
In this matter Sternhell distinguishes two schools of thought in Zionism. One was the liberal or utilitarian school of
The other was the organic nationalist school. It was prevalent among the Zionist olim and they saw the movement as a project to rescue the Jewish nation rather than as a project to only rescue Jews. For them, Zionism was the "Rebirth of the Nation".[142]
In the 2008 book
Mystical explanation
Rabbi Tzvi Elimelech of Dinov (Bnei Yissaschar, Chodesh Kislev, 2:25) explains that each exile was characterized by a different negative aspect:[143]
- The Sefirah of Gevurah, strength and bodily might.
- The Persian exile was one of emotional temptation. The Persians were hedonists who declared that the purpose of life is to pursue indulgence and lusts—"Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we may die." They were lopsided towards the quality of Chesed, attraction and kindness (albeit to the self).
- Hellenistic civilization was highly cultured and sophisticated. Although the Greeks had a strong sense of aesthetics, they were highly pompous, and they viewed aesthetics as an end in itself. They were excessively attached to the quality of Tiferet, beauty. This was also related to an appreciation of the intellect's transcendence over the body, which reveals the beauty of the spirit.
- The exile of Malchut, sovereignty, the lowest Sefirah, which can be received from any of the others, and can act as a medium for them.
The Jewish fast day of
In Christian theology
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According to
Historical comparison of Jewish population
Region | Jews, № (1900)[146] |
Jews, % (1900)[146] |
Jews, № (1942)[147] |
Jews, % (1942)[147] |
Jews, № (1970)[148] |
Jews, % (1970)[148] |
Jews, № (2010)[149] |
Jews, % (2010)[149] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Europe
|
8,977,581 | 2.20% | 9,237,314 | 3,228,000 | 0.50% | 1,455,900 | 0.18% | |
Austria[a] | 1,224,899 | 4.68% | 13,000 | 0.06% | ||||
Belgium | 12,000 | 0.18% | 30,300 | 0.28% | ||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
8,213 | 0.58% | 500 | 0.01% | ||||
Bulgaria/Turkey/Ottoman Empire[b] | 390,018 | 1.62% | 24,300 | 0.02% | ||||
Denmark | 5,000 | 0.20% | 6,400 | 0.12% | ||||
France | 86,885 | 0.22% | 530,000 | 1.02% | 483,500 | 0.77% | ||
Germany | 586,948 | 1.04% | 30,000 | 0.04% | 119,000 | 0.15% | ||
Hungary[c] | 851,378 | 4.43% | 70,000 | 0.68% | 52,900 | 0.27% | ||
Italy | 34,653 | 0.10% | 28,400 | 0.05% | ||||
Luxembourg | 1,200 | 0.50% | 600 | 0.12% | ||||
Netherlands | 103,988 | 2.00% | 30,000 | 0.18% | ||||
Norway/Sweden | 5,000 | 0.07% | 16,200 | 0.11% | ||||
Poland | 1,316,776 | 16.25% | 3,200 | 0.01% | ||||
Portugal | 1,200 | 0.02% | 500 | 0.00% | ||||
Romania | 269,015 | 4.99% | 9,700 | 0.05% | ||||
Russian Empire (Europe)[d] | 3,907,102 | 3.17% | 1,897,000 | 0.96% | 311,400 | 0.15% | ||
Serbia | 5,102 | 0.20% | 1,400 | 0.02% | ||||
Spain | 5,000 | 0.02% | 12,000 | 0.03% | ||||
Switzerland
|
12,551 | 0.38% | 17,600 | 0.23% | ||||
United Kingdom/Ireland | 250,000 | 0.57% | 390,000 | 0.70% | 293,200 | 0.44% | ||
Asia | 352,340 | 0.04% | 774,049 | 2,940,000 | 0.14% | 5,741,500 | 0.14% | |
Arabia/Yemen | 30,000 | 0.42% | 200 | 0.00% | ||||
Taiwan/Japan
|
2,000 | 0.00% | 2,600 | 0.00% | ||||
India | 18,228 | 0.0067% | 5,000 | 0.00% | ||||
Iran | 35,000 | 0.39% | 10,400 | 0.01% | ||||
Israel | 2,582,000 | 86.82% | 5,413,800 | 74.62% | ||||
Russian Empire (Asia)[e] | 89,635 | 0.38% | 254,000 | 0.57% | 18,600 | 0.02% | ||
Africa
|
372,659 | 0.28% | 593,736 | 195,000 | 0.05% | 76,200 | 0.01% | |
Algeria | 51,044 | 1.07% | ||||||
Egypt | 30,678 | 0.31% | 100 | 0.00% | ||||
Ethiopia | 50,000 | 1.00% | 100 | 0.00% | ||||
Libya | 18,680 | 2.33% | ||||||
Morocco
|
109,712 | 2.11% | 2,700 | 0.01% | ||||
South Africa | 50,000 | 4.54% | 118,000 | 0.53% | 70,800 | 0.14% | ||
Tunisia | 62,545 | 4.16% | 1,000 | 0.01% | ||||
Americas | 1,553,656 | 1.00% | 4,739,769 | 6,200,000 | 1.20% | 6,039,600 | 0.64% | |
Argentina
|
20,000 | 0.42% | 282,000 | 1.18% | 182,300 | 0.45% | ||
Bolivia/Chile/Ecuador/Peru/Uruguay | 1,000 | 0.01% | 41,400 | 0.06% | ||||
Brazil | 2,000 | 0.01% | 90,000 | 0.09% | 107,329[150] | 0.05% | ||
Canada | 22,500 | 0.42% | 286,000 | 1.34% | 375,000 | 1.11% | ||
Central America | 4,035 | 0.12% | 54,500 | 0.03% | ||||
Colombia/Guiana/Venezuela | 2,000 | 0.03% | 14,700 | 0.02% | ||||
Mexico | 1,000 | 0.01% | 35,000 | 0.07% | 39,400 | 0.04% | ||
Suriname | 1,121 | 1.97% | 200 | 0.04% | ||||
United States | 1,500,000 | 1.97% | 4,975,000 | 3.00% | 5,400,000 | 2.63% | 5,275,000 | 1.71% |
Oceania | 16,840 | 0.28% | 26,954 | 70,000 | 0.36% | 115,100 | 0.32% | |
Australia | 15,122 | 0.49% | 65,000 | 0.52% | 107,500 | 0.50% | ||
New Zealand | 1,611 | 0.20% | 7,500 | 0.17% | ||||
Total | 11,273,076 | 0.68% | 15,371,822 | 12,633,000 | 0.4% | 13,428,300 | 0.19% |
a.
b.
c.^ Croatia, Hungary, Slovakia
d.^ Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Belarus, Moldova, Russia (including Siberia), Ukraine.
e.
Today
As of 2023, about 8.5 million Jews live outside Israel, which hosts the largest Jewish population in the world with 7.2 million. Israel is followed by the United States with approximately 6.3 million. Other countries with significant Jewish populations include France (440,000), Canada (398,000), the United Kingdom (312,000), Argentina (171,000), Russia (132,000), Germany (125,000), Australia (117,200), Brazil (90,000), and South Africa (50,000). These numbers reflect the "core" Jewish population,[151][152] defined as being "not inclusive of non-Jewish members of Jewish households, persons of Jewish ancestry who profess another monotheistic religion, other non-Jews of Jewish ancestry, and other non-Jews who may be interested in Jewish matters."[citation needed] Jewish populations also remain in Middle Eastern and North African countries outside of Israel, particularly Turkey, Iran, Morocco, Tunisia, and the Emirates.[152] In general, these populations are shrinking due to low growth rates and high rates of emigration (particularly since the 1960s).[citation needed]
The
- Gush Dan (Tel Aviv) – 2,980,000
- New York City – 2,008,000
- Jerusalem – 705,000
- Los Angeles – 685,000
- Haifa – 671,000
- Miami – 486,000
- Beersheba – 368,000
- San Francisco – 346,000
- Chicago – 319,600[160]
- Paris – 284,000
- Philadelphia – 264,000
- Boston – 229,000
- Washington, D.C. – 216,000
- London – 195,000
- Toronto – 180,000
- Atlanta – 120,000
- Moscow – 95,000
- San Diego – 89,000
- Cleveland – 87,000[161]
- Phoenix – 83,000
- Montreal – 80,000
- better source needed]
See also
- Expulsions and exoduses of Jews
- Historical Jewish population comparisons
- Homeland for the Jewish people
- Jewish Agency for Israel
- Jewish ethnic divisions
- Jewish history
- Jewish population by country
- World Jewish Congress
- Yerida
Notes
References
Citations
- ^ "golus". Jewish English Lexicon.
- ^ "galuth". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.: “Etymology: Hebrew gālūth”
- ^ "Diaspora | Judaism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-07-12.
- ^ Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel. "Galut." Encyclopaedia Judaica, edited by Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik, 2nd ed., vol. 7, Macmillan Reference (US) 2007, pp. 352–63. Gale Virtual Reference Library
- ^ Erich S. Gruen, Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans Harvard University Press, 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–34: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'
- ISBN 978-0521243773.
- ^ Gruen, Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans, Harvard University Press, 2009 pp. 233–34:
- Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt Explorations in Jewish Historical Experience: The Civilizational Dimension, BRILL, 2004 pp.60-61:'What was unique was the tendency to conflate dispersion with Exile, and to endow the combined experience of dispersion and Exile with a strong metaphysical and religious negative evaluation of galut. . In most cases galut was seen as basically negative, explained in terms of sin and punishment. Life in galut was defined as a partial, suspe4nded existence, but at the same time it had to be nurtured in order to guarantee the survival of the Jewish people until the Redemption.'
- ^ 'Diaspora is a relatively new English word and has no traditional Hebrew equivalent.¹.Howard Wettstein, 'Coming to Terms with Exile.' in Howard Wettstein (ed.) Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish Identity, University of California Press 2002 (pp. 47-59 p.47
- ^ Springer Science & Business Media, 2004 pp.192ff. p.193
- ^ Jeffrey M. Peck, Being Jewish in the New Germany, Rutgers University Press, 2006 p 154.
- ABC-CLIO, 2009 pp.61-63, p.61:’Diaspora is a political notion; it suggests geopolitical dispersion, perhaps involuntary. However, with changed circumstances, a population may come to see virtue in diasporic life. Diaspora-as oppposed to galut-may thus acquire a positive charge. Galut rings of teleology, not politics. It suggests dislocation, a sense of being uprooted, in the wrong place. Perhaps the community has been punished; perhaps awful things happen in our world
- Springer Science & Business Media2011 p. 127
- ^ Stéphane Dufoix, The Dispersion: A History of the Word Diaspora, BRILL, 2016 pp.28ff, 40.
- ^ Dufoix pp.41,46.
- ^ Dufoix p.47.
- ^ Stéphane Dufoix, p.49
- ^ See for example, Kiddushin (tosafot) 41a, ref. "Assur l'adam..."
- ^ Eugene B. Borowitz, Exploring Jewish Ethics: Papers on Covenant Responsibility, Wayne State University Press, 1990 p.129:'Galut is fundamentally a theological category.'
- UPNE, 1998 pp.96ff. p.80
- ^ a b Yosef Gorny Converging Alternatives: The Bund and the Zionist Labor Movement, 1897-1985, SUNY Press, 2012 p.50.
- JSTOR 23260747.
- ^ Laura A Knott (1922) Student's History of the Hebrews p.225, Abingdon Press, New York
- ^ ISBN 9780802849137.
- ^ "In the beginning, when the Torah was forgotten by Israel, Ezra came from Babylonia and reestablished it. Later the Torah became forgotten again. Then came Hillel the Babylonian and reestablished it." Sukkah 20a
- ISBN 978-0-899-06455-0
- ISBN 9789004115095.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7.
- ^ Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, vol.1 2004 pp.76ff.
- ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4, 2004 p.355.
- Springer Science & Business Media, 2004 pp.192ff. pp.192-193.
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, in The Works of Josephus, Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition (Translated by William Whiston, A.M.; Peabody Massachusetts:Hendrickson Publishers, 1987; Fifth Printing:Jan.1991 Bk. 12, chapters. 1, 2, pp. 308-309 (Bk. 12: verses 7, 9, 11)
- ^ "Egypt Virtual Jewish History Tour". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
- ISBN 9781851098736.
- Walter de GruyterGmbH & Co KG
- ^ a b Hegermann, Harald (2008) "The Diaspora in the Hellenistic Age." In: The Cambridge History of Judaism, Vol. 2. Eds.: Davies and Finkelstein.PP. 115–166
- ^ E. Mary Smallwood (2008) "The Diaspora in the Roman period before A.D. 70." In: The Cambridge History of Judaism, Volume 3. Editors Davis and Finkelstein.
- ^ a b Jacobs, Joseph and Schulim, Oscher: ROME - Jewish Encyclopedia
- ISBN 9780521243773.
- ^ Salo Wittmayer Baron (1937). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, by Salo Wittmayer Baron ... Volume 1 of A Social and Religious History of the Jews. Columbia University Press. p. 132.
- ^ ISBN 9780203446348.
- ISBN 9789042906662.
- ^ Louis H. Feldman (2006). Judaism And Hellenism Reconsidered. BRILL.
- ISBN 978-1439085783.
- ^ Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William; Sturdy, John; Katz, Steven T.; Hart, Mitchell Bryan; Michels, Tony; Karp, Jonathan; Sutcliffe, Adam; Chazan, Robert: The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, p.168 (1984), Cambridge University Press
- ^ The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian : a Study in Political Relations, p. 131
- ^ Josephus. The Jewish War. Translated by Whiston, William. 1.0.2 – via PACE: Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement. (Preface) Greek: Ἀράβων τε τοὺς πορρωτάτω.
- ^ Wettstein, Howard: Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish Identity, p. 31
- ^ Flavius Josephus: The Judean War Archived 2018-11-16 at the Wayback Machine, Book 6, Chapter 9
- ^ "Genetic study offers clues to history of North Africa's Jews". Reuters. August 6, 2012 – via www.reuters.com.
- Julio-Claudian empire. Until then—if one accepts Sejanus' heyday and the trouble caused by the census after Archelaus' banishment—there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the Empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of *himself* be set up in the Temple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish-Roman war that might well have spread to the entire East."
- ^ "DIASPORA - JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com.
- ^ Galimnberti, 2010, p.73.
- ^ Feldman 1990, p. 19: "While it is true that there is no evidence as to precisely who changed the name of Judaea to Palestine and precisely when this was done, circumstantial evidence would seem to point to Hadrian himself, since he is, it would seem, responsible for a number of decrees that sought to crush the national and religious spirit of the Jews, whether these decrees were responsible for the uprising or were the result of it. In the first place, he refounded Jerusalem as a Graeco-Roman city under the name of Aelia Capitolina. He also erected on the site of the Temple another temple to Zeus."
- ^ Jacobson 2001, p. 44-45: "Hadrian officially renamed Judea Syria Palaestina after his Roman armies suppressed the Bar-Kokhba Revolt (the Second Jewish Revolt) in 135 C.E.; this is commonly viewed as a move intended to sever the connection of the Jews to their historical homeland. However, that Jewish writers such as Philo, in particular, and Josephus, who flourished while Judea was still formally in existence, used the name Palestine for the Land of Israel in their Greek works, suggests that this interpretation of history is mistaken. Hadrian's choice of Syria Palaestina may be more correctly seen as a rationalization of the name of the new province, in accordance with its area being far larger than geographical Judea. Indeed, Syria Palaestina had an ancient pedigree that was intimately linked with the area of greater Israel."
- ^ Gudrun Krämer A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel, Princeton University Press p.14:"As another element of retaliation, the Romans renamed the province of Judaea "Syria Palestina" to erase any linguistic connection with the rebellious Jews. As mentioned earlier, the name "Palestine" in itself was not new, having already served in Assyrian and Egyptian sources to designate the coastal plain of the southern Levant."
- ^ William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, Cambridge University Press 1984p=?: 'Hadrian visited Palestine in 130, as part of a tour of the eastern provinces of the Empire. It now seems likely, though not absolutely certain, that it was on this occasion that he announced his intention to restore Jerusalem, not as a Jewish city, but as a Roman colony to be named Aelia Capitolina, after himself (his full name was Publius Aelius Hadrianus) and Jupiter Capitolinus, the chief god of the Roman pantheon. This was presumably both intended and understood as a humiliating insult to the defeated God of Israel, who had previously occupied the site, and by extension to the people who persisted in worshiping Him. It also rendered the restoration of His Temple moot.’
- Getty Publications2005 p. 33: "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name - one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus - Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.'
- ^ Peter Schäfer, The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered Mohr Siebeck 2003 p.33.
- ^ Menahem Mor, The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE, BRILL, 2016 p.487:’Despite the fact that the actions of Hadrian were of a political nature, their intention was not to bring about the eliminating of Judaism, at least not according to Hadrian’s perceptions. Some of the Jewish population in the Judeaean mountains regarded Roman conquest and the general policy of the emperor carried out by Tineius Rufus, the local governor, as sufficient cause for another revolt against Rome. Yet the territorial limitations of the Second Revolt testify that most of the Jewish population in Judea did not regard these activities as a reason for rebellion.’
- JSTOR 4435963.
- Walter de Gruyter, 2010 pp.85-109 p.89-91.
- Walter de Gruyter, 2010 pp.71-84, p.74.
- ^ Gilbert, Martin: In Ishmael's House, p. 3
- ISBN 9780845366592.
- ^ Martin Goodman, 'The Roman State and Jewish Diaspora Communities in the Antonine Age,' in Yair Furstenberg (ed.),Jewish and Christian Communal Identities in the Roman World, BRILL, 2016 pp.75-86 p.75.
- ^ E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian: a Study in Political Relations, Brill Publishers 2001 p.507.
- ^ J. E. Taylor The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea, Oxford University Press 2012 p.243:'Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction.'
- ^ Isaiah Gafni, Land, Center and Diaspora: Jewish Constructs in Late Antiquity, Bloomsbury Publishing, 1997 p.66.
- ^ a b Cherry, Robert: Jewish and Christian Views on Bodily Pleasure: Their Origins and Relevance in the Twentieth-Century, p. 148 (2018), Wipf and Stock Publishers
- ISBN 9781136158957.
- ^ GOODMAN, MARTIN (26 February 2010). "Secta and natio". The Times Literary Supplement. The Times Literary Supplement Limited. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
- ^ No Return, No Refuge (Howard Adelman, Elazar Barkan, p. 159). "in the popular imagination of Jewish history, in contrast to the accounts of historians or official agencies, there is a widespread notion that the Jews from Judea were expelled in antiquity after the destruction of the temple and the "Great Rebellion" (70 and 135 CE, respectively). Even more misleading, there is the widespread, popular belief that this expulsion created the diaspora."
- Verso2009 pp.129ff. p.143
- ^ a b Bartal, Israel (July 6, 2008). "Inventing an invention". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 2009-03-03. Retrieved October 22, 2009.
My response to Sand's arguments is that no historian of the Jewish national movement has ever really believed that the origins of the Jews are ethnically and biologically "pure." Sand applies marginal positions to the entire body of Jewish historiography and, in doing so, denies the existence of the central positions in Jewish historical scholarship. No "nationalist" Jewish historian has ever tried to conceal the well-known fact that conversions to Judaism had a major impact on Jewish history in the ancient period and in the early Middle Ages. Although the myth of an exile from the Jewish homeland (Palestine) does exist in popular Israeli culture, it is negligible in serious Jewish historical discussions. Important groups in the Jewish national movement expressed reservations regarding this myth or denied it completely.
- ^ "Book Calls Jewish People an 'Invention'". The New York Times. November 23, 2009. p. 2.
Experts dismiss the popular notion that the Jews were expelled from Palestine in one fell swoop in A.D. 70. Yet while the destruction of Jerusalem and Second Temple by the Romans did not create the Diaspora, it caused a momentous change in the Jews' sense of themselves and their position in the world.
- ^ ("Focus on the consequences of the Temple's destruction, however, overlooks a fact of immense significance: the diaspora had a long history prior to Rome's crushing of Jerusalem. (...) Compulsory dislocation, however, cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora" Erich S. Gruen, "Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans", pages 2-3)
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1 p. 126: "In fact, well before the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE), more Jews lived in the Diaspora than in the Land of Israel."
- ISBN 978-1-135-97414-5.
- ^ The Construct of Identity in Hellenistic Judaism: Essays on Early Jewish Literature and History: Gruen, Erich S., p. 285
- ^ The Ten Lost Tribes: A World History (Zvi Ben-Dor Benite, Oxford University Press 2009) pp. 17–18"the dispersal of the Jews, even in ancient times, was connected with an array of factors, none of them clearly exilic"
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- ^ M. Avi-Yonah, The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule, Jerusalem 1984 chapters XI–XII
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Bibliography
- Aviv, Caryn S.; Schneer, David (2005). New Jews: The End of the Jewish Diaspora. New York: New York University Press. OCLC 60321977.
- Ehrlich, M. Avrum, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diasporaː Origins, Experiences, and Culture. Oxford: ABC Clio.
- Feldman, Louis H. (1990). "Some Observations on the Name of Palestine". Hebrew Union College Annual. 61. Hebrew Union College - Jewish Institute of Religion: 1–23. JSTOR 23508170.
- Jacobson, David (2001), "When Palestine Meant Israel", Biblical Archaeology Review, 27 (3)
External links
- Jewish Diaspora at the JewishEncyclopedia.com
- World Jewish Congress – Jewish Communities
- Research and articles about the diaspora experience and Israel-Diaspora relations on the Berman Jewish Policy Archive @ NYU Wagner
- The Diaspora and Israel – Rich Cohen