Jihadism
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Jihadism is a
Modern jihadism mostly has its roots in the late 19th- and early 20th-century ideological developments of Islamic revivalism, which further developed into Qutbism and related Islamist ideologies during the 20th and 21st centuries.[3][9][10] The jihadist ideologues envisioned jihad as a "revolutionary struggle" against the secular international order to unite the Muslim world under the "rule of God".[11] The Islamist volunteer organisations which participated in the Soviet–Afghan War of 1979 to 1989 reinforced the rise of jihadism, which has been propagated during various armed conflicts throughout the 1990s and 2000s.[12][13]
Jihadist organizations and rebel groups have become more prominent since the 1990s; by one estimate, 5 percent of civil wars involved jihadist groups in 1990 but more than 40 percent in 2014.
Terminology
The term "jihadism" has been in use since the 1990s, more widely in the aftermath of the
David Romano, researcher of political science at the
"Jihadism" has been defined otherwise as a
Maajid Nawaz, founder and chairman of the anti-extremism think tank Quilliam, defines jihadism as a violent subset of Islamism: "Islamism [is] the desire to impose any version of Islam over any society. Jihadism is the attempt to do so by force."[30] Many Muslims do not use the terms "jihadism" or "jihadist", disliking the association of illegitimate violence with a noble religious concept, and instead prefer the use of delegitimising terms like "deviants".[25][Note 2]
"
History
Key influences
The term “jihadism” has been applied to various
Sayyid Qutb could be said to have founded the actual movement of radical Islam.[5][43][44] Unlike the other Islamic thinkers who have been mentioned above, Qutb was not an apologist.[5] He was a prominent leader of the Muslim Brotherhood and a highly influential Islamist ideologue,[5][43] and the first to articulate these anathemizing principles in his magnum opus Fī ẓilāl al-Qurʾān (In the shade of the Qurʾān) and his 1966 manifesto Maʿālim fīl-ṭarīq (Milestones), which lead to his execution by the Egyptian government.[5][53] Other Salafi movements in the Middle East and North Africa and Salafi movements across the Muslim world adopted many of his Islamist principles.[5][43]
According to Qutb, the Muslim community (Ummah) has been extinct for several centuries and it has also reverted to
Islamic revivalism and Salafism (1990s to present)
According to
Some of the earlier
The term jihadism (earlier Salafi jihadism) has arisen in the 2000s to refer to the contemporary jihadi movements, the development of which was in retrospect traced to developments of
Some examples are:- Kashmir conflict (Lashkar-e-Taiba; 1990–present)
- Somali Civil War (1991–present)
- Algerian Civil War (1991–2002)
- Bosnian war (Bosnian mujahideen; 1992–1995)
- Afghan internal conflict (Taliban; 1994–present)
- East Turkestan Islamic Movement; 1997–present)
- Arab Mujahideen in Chechnya; 1994–2017)
- Nigerian Sharia conflict (Boko Haram; 2001–present)
- Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)
- Iraqi insurgency (Islamic State of Iraq; 2003–present)
- Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen (Abyan Governorate; 2010–present)
- Al-Nusra Front to Protect the Levant; 2011–present)
- Syrian Civil War (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant; 2013–present)
An explanation for jihadist willingness to kill civilians and self-professed Muslims on the grounds that they were actually apostates (takfīr) is the vastly reduced influence of the traditional diverse class of ulama, often highly educated Islamic jurists. In "the vast majority" of Muslim countries during the post-colonial world of the 1950s and 1960s, the private religious endowments (awqāf) that had supported the independence of Islamic scholars and jurists for centuries were taken over by the state. The jurists were made salaried employees and the nationalist rulers naturally encouraged their employees (and their employees' interpretations of Islam) to serve the rulers' interests. Inevitably, the jurists came to be seen by the Muslim public as doing this.[61]
Into this vacuum of religious authority came
Shia jihad
The term jihadist is almost exclusively used to describe
Beliefs
According to Shadi Hamid and Rashid Dar, jihadism is driven by the idea that jihad is an "individual obligation" (
Evolution of jihad
Some observers
The first or the "classical" doctrine of jihad which was developed towards the end of the 8th century, emphasized the "jihad of the sword" (jihad bil-saif) rather than the "jihad of the heart",
Scholars like
Islamic theologian Abu Abdullah al-Muhajir has been identified as one of the key theorists and
Ranging from ruminations on the merits of beheading, torturing, or burning prisoners to thoughts on assassination, siege warfare, and the use of biological weapons, Muhajir's intellectual legacy is a crucial component of the
committing suicide to kill people is not only a theologically sound act, but a commendable one, too, something to be cherished and celebrated regardless of its outcome. [...] neither Zarqawi nor his inheritors have looked back, liberally using Muhajir's work to normalize the use of suicide tactics in the time since, such that they have become the single most important military and terrorist method—defensive or offensive—used by ISIS today. The way that Muhajir theorized it was simple—he offered up a theological fix that allows any who desire it to sidestep the Koranic injunctions against suicide.[88]
Clinical psychologist Chris E. Stout also discusses the al Muhajir-inspired text in his essay, Terrorism, Political Violence, and Extremism (2017). He assesses that jihadists regard their actions as being "for the greater good"; that they are in a "weakened in the earth" situation that renders Islamic terrorism a valid means of solution.[90]
Opponents
As part of their commitment to restore an Islamic state that implements Sharia (Islamic law), Jihadists are opposed to all forms secular governance: be it democracy, communism, Ba'athism, nationalism as well as all types of non-Muslim political orders.[91]
Against Ba'athism
Syria
Islamic opposition to
During the
Iraq
As early as the 1980s, Saudi Arabian jihadist militant and
Against Communism
During the
Against Shīʿa Islamists
After the outbreak of the
See also
- Arab Cold War
- Caucasus Emirate,[108] a self-declared proto-state in Russia's North Caucasus
- Counter-jihad
- Defensive jihad
- Dominion theology
- International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism (by region)
- Islam and war
- Islam and violence
- Holy war in Islam
- Islamic extremism
- Islamic fundamentalism
- Islamic terrorism
- Jihadist extremism in the United States
- Jihadist flag
- Qutbism
- Takfirism
- Islamism
- List of Islamist terrorist attacks
- Mujahideen
- Religious fanaticism in Islam
- Salafi movement
- International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism (by region)
- Petro-Islam
- Salafi jihadism
- Wahhabism
Notes
- ^ Gilles Kepel used the variants jihadist-salafist (p. 220), jihadism-salafism (p. 276), salafist-jihadism (p. 403) in his book Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002)
- ^ Use of "jihadism" has been criticized by at least one academic (Brachman): "'Jihadism' is a clumsy and controversial term. It refers to the peripheral current of extremist Islamic thought whose adherents demand the use of violence in order to oust non-Islamic influence from traditionally Muslim lands en route to establishing true Islamic governance in accordance with Sharia, or God's law. The expression's most significant limitation is that it contains the word Jihad, which is an important religious concept in Islam. For much of the Islamic world, Jihad simply refers to the internal spiritual campaign that one wages with oneself."[31]
- ^ For example: "The battle has drawn Shiite militias from Lebanon, Iraq and Afghanistan on the side of Assad, even as Sunni would-be jihadists from around the world have filled the ranks of the many Islamist groups fighting his rule, including the Islamic State extremist group."[65]
- ^ The Iranian government has drawn from Afghan refugees living in Iran and the number of Afghans fighting in Syria on behalf of the Assad regime has been estimated at "between 10,000 and 12,000".[66]
References
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'Jihadism' is a term that has been applied in Western languages to describe militant Islamic movements that are perceived as existentially threatening to the West. Western media have tended to refer to Jihadism as a military movement which is rooted in political Islam. [...] 'Jihadism,' like the word jihad from which it is constructed, is a difficult term to precisely define. The meaning of Jihadism is a virtual moving target because it remains a recent neologism
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - jihad fi sabilillahmuch of the prominence it held in the early days of Islam. Yet Gibb, for all his perception, did not consider jihad within the context of its alliance to ascetic and revivalist sentiments, nor from the perspectives which left it open to diverse interpretations." (p. 31)
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. 174.
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. pp. 156, 7.
- ^ Fairfield, Hannah; Wallace, Tim; Watkins, Derek (21 May 2015). "How ISIS Expands". The New York Times. New York City. Archived from the original on 23 May 2015. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
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The guardians of the Islamic tradition were the jurists.
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Well before the full emergence of Islamism in the 1970s, a growing constituency nicknamed 'petro-Islam' included Wahhabi ulemas and Islamist intellectuals and promoted strict implementation of the sharia in the political, moral and cultural spheres; this proto-movement had few social concerns and even fewer revolutionary ones.
- ^ ISBN 9780807002292. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
The guardians of the Islamic tradition were the jurists.
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- ^ see also: Smyth, Phillip (2 October 2013). "Foreign Shia jihadists in Syria". abc.net.au. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
- ^ "Are Shia Militias Jihadist?". magazine.zenith.me. 20 December 2017. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
- ^ Understanding the Houthi Ideology and its Consequences on Yemen Embassy of Yemen in Washington, DC. Salem Bahfi. September 2020
- ^ "Inside War-Torn Yemen as Civilians Fight for Survival". TIME.com. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
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[Unlike the five pillars of Islam, jihad was to be enforced by the state.] ... 'unless the Muslim community is subjected to a sudden attack and therefore all believers, including women and children are under the obligation to fight—[jihad of the sword] is regarded by all jurists, with almost no exception, as a collective obligation of the whole Muslim community,' meaning that 'if the duty is fulfilled by a part of the community it ceases to be obligatory on others'.
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• Crooke, Alastair (30 June 2014). "The ISIS' 'Management of Savagery' in Iraq". HuffPost.
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Literature
- Abbas, Tahir (2007). Islamic Political Radicalism: A European Perspective. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2528-4.
- Akbarzadeh, Shahram (2010). Islam and Political Violence: Muslim Diaspora and Radicalism in the West. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84511-473-2.
- Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2009). Dying for Faith: Religiously Motivated Violence in the Contemporary World. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84511-687-3.
- Aslan, Reza (2010). Global Jihadism. ISBN 978-3-639-25006-0.
- Botobekov, Uran (2021). "How Central Asian Salafi-Jihadi Groups are Exploiting the Covid-19 Pandemic: New Opportunities and Challenges". In Käsehage, Nina (ed.). Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic. Religionswissenschaft. Vol. 21. ISBN 978-3-8376-5485-1.
- Brachman, Jarret (2008). Global jihadism: theory and practice. vol. 10 of Cass series on political violence, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4537-4664-6.
- Brzuszkiewicz, Sarah (2020). "Jihadism and Far-Right Extremism: Shared Attributes With Regard to Violence Spectacularisation". .
- Coolsaet, Rik (2008). Jihadi Terrorism and the Radicalisation Challenge in Europe. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-7217-3.
- Hegghammer, Thomas (2010). Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism since 1979. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51858-1.
- Hegghammer, Thomas (2015). ""Classical" and "Global" Jihadism in Saudi Arabia". In ISBN 978-1-107-00629-4.
- Käsehage, Nina (2021). "Towards a Covid-Jihad – Millennialism in the field of Jihadism". In Käsehage, Nina (ed.). Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic. Religionswissenschaft. Vol. 21. ISBN 978-3-8376-5485-1.
- OCLC 1179546717.
- Khosrokhavar, Farhad (2009). Inside Jihadism: Understanding Jihadi Movements Worldwide. Paradigm. ISBN 978-1-59451-616-0.
- Lahoud, Nelly (2010). The Jihadis' Path to Self-destruction. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84904-062-4.
- Lohlker, Rüdiger, ed. (2013). Jihadism: Online Discourses and Representations. Vienna University Press. ISBN 978-3-8471-0068-3.
- Lohlker, Rüdiger, ed. (2012). New Approaches to the Analysis of Jihadism. Vienna University Press. ISBN 978-3-89971-900-0.
- Pargeter, Alison (2008). The New Frontiers of Jihad: Radical Islam in Europe. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84511-391-9.
- Pasha, Mustapha Kamal (April 2010). "In the Shadows of Globalization: Civilizational Crisis, the 'Global Modern', and 'Islamic Nihilism'". S2CID 144581998.
- Ranstorp, Magnus (2009). Understanding Violent Radicalisation. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-55630-9.
- Rhodes, Darion (2014). Salafist-Takfiri Jihadism: the Ideology of the Caucasus Emirate. International Institute for Counter-Terrorism.
- Sageman, Marc (2008). Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-first Century. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4065-8.
- Sanchez, James (2007). Who's Who in Al-Qaeda & Jihadi Movements in South and Southeast Asia 19,906 Key Individuals, Organizations, Incidents, and Linkages. Lulu. ISBN 978-1-4303-1473-8.
- Vertigans, Stephen (2007). Militant Islam: A Sociology of Characteristics, Causes and Consequences. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41246-9.
- de Pommereau, Isabelle (2015). "To fight homegrown jihadis, Germany takes lesson from battle with neo-Nazis". The Christian Science Monitor.
External links
- Zahid, Farhan (8 January 2020). "Jihadism in South Asia: A militant landscape in flux". mei.edu. Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute. Retrieved 7 September 2020.