Jihadism

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Jihadi international
)

Territorial presence of jihadist groups and overview of the situation in each region

Jihadism is a

Islamic empires in history, such as the Umayyad Caliphate and the Ottoman Empire, who extensively campaigned against non-Muslim nations in the name of jihad.[7][8]

Modern jihadism mostly has its roots in the late 19th- and early 20th-century ideological developments of Islamic revivalism, which further developed into Qutbism and related Islamist ideologies during the 20th and 21st centuries.[3][9][10] The jihadist ideologues envisioned jihad as a "revolutionary struggle" against the secular international order to unite the Muslim world under the "rule of God".[11] The Islamist volunteer organisations which participated in the Soviet–Afghan War of 1979 to 1989 reinforced the rise of jihadism, which has been propagated during various armed conflicts throughout the 1990s and 2000s.[12][13]

Jihadist organizations and rebel groups have become more prominent since the 1990s; by one estimate, 5 percent of civil wars involved jihadist groups in 1990 but more than 40 percent in 2014.

global jihad in Syria and Iraq.[24]

Terminology

Jihadist variation of the Black Standard as used by various Islamist organizations since the late 1990s, which consists of the Shahada in white script centered on a black background.

The term "jihadism" has been in use since the 1990s, more widely in the aftermath of the

Muslim lands to governance by Islamic principles."[11]

David Romano, researcher of political science at the

Montreal, Quebec, has defined his use of the term as referring to "an individual or political movement that primarily focuses its attention, discourse, and activities on the conduct of a violent, uncompromising campaign that they term a jihad".[26] Following Daniel Kimmage, he distinguishes the jihadist discourse of jihad as a global project to remake the world from the resistance discourse of groups like Hezbollah, which is framed as a regional project against a specific enemy.[26]

"Jihadism" has been defined otherwise as a

War on Terror.[28] The Austrian-American academic Manfred B. Steger, Professor of Sociology at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, proposed an extension of the term "jihadist globalism" to apply to all extremely violent strains of religiously influenced ideologies that articulate the global imaginary into concrete political agendas and terrorist strategies; these include al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah, Hamas, and Hezbollah, which he finds "today's most spectacular manifestation of religious globalism".[29]

Maajid Nawaz, founder and chairman of the anti-extremism think tank Quilliam, defines jihadism as a violent subset of Islamism: "Islamism [is] the desire to impose any version of Islam over any society. Jihadism is the attempt to do so by force."[30] Many Muslims do not use the terms "jihadism" or "jihadist", disliking the association of illegitimate violence with a noble religious concept, and instead prefer the use of delegitimising terms like "deviants".[25][Note 2]

"

rap videos,[33] toys, propaganda videos,[34] and other means.[35][36] It is a subculture mainly applied to individuals in developed nations who are recruited to travel to conflict zones on jihad. For example, jihadi rap videos make participants look "more MTV than Mosque", according to NPR, which was the first to report on the phenomenon in 2010.[35] To justify their acts of religious violence, jihadist individuals and networks resort to the nonbinding genre of Islamic legal literature (fatwa) developed by jihadi-Salafist legal authorities, whose legal writings are shared and spread via the Internet.[37]

History

, Afghanistan (1987)

Key influences

The term “jihadism” has been applied to various

Ottoman empire, who extensively campaigned against non-Muslim nations in the name of jihad.[7][8]

Islamic prophet Muhammad.[38] From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims.[38] Shīʿas believe ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib is the true successor to Muhammad, while Sunnīs consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. The Kharijites broke away from both the Shīʿas and the Sunnīs during the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil War);[38] they were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to takfīr (excommunication), whereby they declared both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims to be either infidels (kuffār) or false Muslims (munāfiḳūn), and therefore deemed them worthy of death for their perceived apostasy (ridda).[38][39][40]

Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri of al-Qaeda promoted the overthrow of secular governments.[41][42][43]

ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh.[46] Moreover, Qutb's books have been frequently been cited by Osama bin Laden and Anwar al-Awlaki.[47][48][49][50][51][52]

Sayyid Qutb could be said to have founded the actual movement of radical Islam.[5][43][44] Unlike the other Islamic thinkers who have been mentioned above, Qutb was not an apologist.[5] He was a prominent leader of the Muslim Brotherhood and a highly influential Islamist ideologue,[5][43] and the first to articulate these anathemizing principles in his magnum opus Fī ẓilāl al-Qurʾān (In the shade of the Qurʾān) and his 1966 manifesto Maʿālim fīl-ṭarīq (Milestones), which lead to his execution by the Egyptian government.[5][53] Other Salafi movements in the Middle East and North Africa and Salafi movements across the Muslim world adopted many of his Islamist principles.[5][43]

According to Qutb, the Muslim community (Ummah) has been extinct for several centuries and it has also reverted to

jahiliyah (the pre-Islamic age of ignorance) because those who call themselves Muslims have failed to follow the sharia law.[5][43] In order to restore Islam, bring back its days of glory, and free the Muslims from the clasps of ignorance, Qutb proposed the shunning of modern society, establishing a vanguard which was modeled after the early Muslims, preaching, and bracing oneself for poverty or even bracing oneself for death in preparation for jihad against what he perceived was a jahili government/society, and the overthrow of them.[5][43] Qutbism, the radical Islamist ideology which is derived from the ideas of Qutb,[43] was denounced by many prominent Muslim scholars as well as by other members of the Muslim Brotherhood, like Yusuf al-Qaradawi
.

Islamic revivalism and Salafism (1990s to present)

Caucasian jihadists in 2002 displays the phrase al-jihad fi sabilillah above the takbir and two crossed swords
.
ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh

According to

Abdullah Azzam, etc.) view it as a struggle for the expansion of Islam and the realization of Islamic ideals."[54]

Some of the earlier

colonial powers in North Africa at that time, as in the Mahdist War in Sudan, and notably in the mid-20th century by Islamic revivalist authors such as Sayyid Qutb and Abul Ala Maududi.[57]

The term jihadism (earlier Salafi jihadism) has arisen in the 2000s to refer to the contemporary jihadi movements, the development of which was in retrospect traced to developments of

Bosnia, and Chechnya, creating a "transnational jihadist stream."[59]
Some examples are:

territory in Iraq and Syria (in grey), at the time of its greatest territorial extent in May 2015.[60]

An explanation for jihadist willingness to kill civilians and self-professed Muslims on the grounds that they were actually apostates (takfīr) is the vastly reduced influence of the traditional diverse class of ulama, often highly educated Islamic jurists. In "the vast majority" of Muslim countries during the post-colonial world of the 1950s and 1960s, the private religious endowments (awqāf) that had supported the independence of Islamic scholars and jurists for centuries were taken over by the state. The jurists were made salaried employees and the nationalist rulers naturally encouraged their employees (and their employees' interpretations of Islam) to serve the rulers' interests. Inevitably, the jurists came to be seen by the Muslim public as doing this.[61]

Into this vacuum of religious authority came

aggressive proselytizing, funded by tens of billions of dollars of petroleum-export money from Saudi Arabia.[62] The version of Islam being propagated (Saudi doctrine of Wahhabism) billed itself as a return to pristine, simple, straightforward Islam,[63] not one school among many, and not interpreting Islamic law historically or contextually, but as the one, orthodox "straight path" of Islam.[63] Unlike the traditional teachings of the jurists, who tolerated and even celebrated divergent opinions and schools of thought and kept extremism marginalized, Wahhabism had "extreme hostility" to "any sectarian divisions within Islam".[63]

Shia jihad

The term jihadist is almost exclusively used to describe

Zaidism, is closer to Sunni in theology than other Shi'a sect.[70][71]

Beliefs

According to Shadi Hamid and Rashid Dar, jihadism is driven by the idea that jihad is an "individual obligation" (

fard al-kifaya) carried out according to orders of legitimate representatives of the Muslim community. Jihadist insist all Muslims should participate because (they believe) today's Muslim leaders are illegitimate and do not command the authority to ordain justified violence.[72]

Evolution of jihad

Houthi flag, with the top saying "God is the greatest", the next line saying "Death to America", followed by "Death to Israel", followed by "A curse upon the Jews
", and the bottom saying "Victory to Islam".

Some observers

bid‘ah (innovation) in religion), have "normalized" what was once "unthinkable".[73] "The very idea that Muslims might blow themselves up for God was unheard of before 1983, and it was not until the early 1990s that anyone anywhere had tried to justify killing innocent Muslims who were not on a battlefield."[73]

The first or the "classical" doctrine of jihad which was developed towards the end of the 8th century, emphasized the "jihad of the sword" (jihad bil-saif) rather than the "jihad of the heart",

Caliph Ali, since they deemed that he was no longer a Muslim).[3] Martyrdom resulting from an attack on the enemy with no concern for your own safety was praiseworthy, but dying by your own hand (as opposed to the enemy's) merited a special place in Hell.[79] The category of jihad which is considered to be a collective obligation is sometimes simplified as "offensive jihad" in Western texts.[80]

Scholars like

Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, are thought to have been heavily influenced[75][82][83][84][85] by a 2004 work on jihad entitled Management of Savagery (Idarat at-Tawahhush),[75] written by Abu Bakr Naji[75] and intended to provide a strategy to create a new Islamic caliphate by first destroying "vital economic and strategic targets" and terrifying the enemy with cruelty to break its will.[86]

Islamic theologian Abu Abdullah al-Muhajir has been identified as one of the key theorists and

ISIL and Boko Haram.[75][87][88][89] Zarqawi used a 579-page manuscript of al-Muhajir's ideas at AQI training camps that were later deployed by ISIL, known in Arabic as Fiqh al-Dima and referred to in English as The Jurisprudence of Jihad or The Jurisprudence of Blood.[75][87][88][89][90] The book has been described by counter-terrorism scholar Orwa Ajjoub as rationalizing and justifying "suicide operations, the mutilation of corpses, beheading, and the killing of children and non-combatants".[75] The Guardian's journalist Mark Towsend, citing Salah al-Ansari of Quilliam, notes: "There is a startling lack of study and concern regarding this abhorrent and dangerous text [The Jurisprudence of Blood] in almost all Western and Arab scholarship".[89] Charlie Winter of The Atlantic describes it as a "theological playbook used to justify the group's abhorrent acts".[88]
He states:

Ranging from ruminations on the merits of beheading, torturing, or burning prisoners to thoughts on assassination, siege warfare, and the use of biological weapons, Muhajir's intellectual legacy is a crucial component of the

committing suicide to kill people is not only a theologically sound act, but a commendable one, too, something to be cherished and celebrated regardless of its outcome. [...] neither Zarqawi nor his inheritors have looked back, liberally using Muhajir's work to normalize the use of suicide tactics in the time since, such that they have become the single most important military and terrorist method—defensive or offensive—used by ISIS today. The way that Muhajir theorized it was simple—he offered up a theological fix that allows any who desire it to sidestep the Koranic injunctions against suicide.[88]

Clinical psychologist Chris E. Stout also discusses the al Muhajir-inspired text in his essay, Terrorism, Political Violence, and Extremism (2017). He assesses that jihadists regard their actions as being "for the greater good"; that they are in a "weakened in the earth" situation that renders Islamic terrorism a valid means of solution.[90]

Opponents

As part of their commitment to restore an Islamic state that implements Sharia (Islamic law), Jihadists are opposed to all forms secular governance: be it democracy, communism, Ba'athism, nationalism as well as all types of non-Muslim political orders.[91]

Against Ba'athism

Syria

Islamic opposition to

Ba'ath regime. Al-Talia (The Fighting Vanguard) led by Adnan Uqlah was a major Islamist organisation that participated in the Jihad. The uprisings were brutally crushed in the 1982 Hama massacre which resulted in 20,000-40,000 deaths.[92]

During the

Assad regime and Jihadists made large inroads into regime-held territories in 2013.[93][94] Al-Nusra Front was one of the largest Jihadist factions in the Syrian Civil War, and carried out large-scale attacks against the Ba'athist military and government officers during its insurgency between 2012 and 2016.[95]

Iraq

As early as the 1980s, Saudi Arabian jihadist militant and

mukawama, or resistance, with overtones of religious legitimacy; its fighters became mujahideen, holy warriors; they proclaimed their mission to be jihad."[99][100]

Afghan mujahideen
leaders in the Oval Office in 1983

Against Communism

During the

Mujahideen volunteers were recruited from various countries, including Egypt, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia.[102] Following the overthrowal of the communist regime and dissolution of U.S.S.R, many foreign Jihadists that coalesced under the transnational networks of Al-Qaeda organisation began viewing their struggle as part of a "Global Jihad", eventually pitting them towards a collision course with the United States in the 1990s.[103][104]

Against Shīʿa Islamists

After the outbreak of the

Sunnī jihadist foreign fighters converged on Syria from Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Yemen, Kuwait, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, as well as from other Arab states, Chechnya, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Western countries.[107]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Gilles Kepel used the variants jihadist-salafist (p. 220), jihadism-salafism (p. 276), salafist-jihadism (p. 403) in his book Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002)
  2. ^ Use of "jihadism" has been criticized by at least one academic (Brachman): "'Jihadism' is a clumsy and controversial term. It refers to the peripheral current of extremist Islamic thought whose adherents demand the use of violence in order to oust non-Islamic influence from traditionally Muslim lands en route to establishing true Islamic governance in accordance with Sharia, or God's law. The expression's most significant limitation is that it contains the word Jihad, which is an important religious concept in Islam. For much of the Islamic world, Jihad simply refers to the internal spiritual campaign that one wages with oneself."[31]
  3. ^ For example: "The battle has drawn Shiite militias from Lebanon, Iraq and Afghanistan on the side of Assad, even as Sunni would-be jihadists from around the world have filled the ranks of the many Islamist groups fighting his rule, including the Islamic State extremist group."[65]
  4. ^ The Iranian government has drawn from Afghan refugees living in Iran and the number of Afghans fighting in Syria on behalf of the Assad regime has been estimated at "between 10,000 and 12,000".[66]

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Literature

  • Abbas, Tahir (2007). Islamic Political Radicalism: A European Perspective. Edinburgh University Press. .
  • Sageman, Marc (2008). Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-first Century. University of Pennsylvania Press. .

External links