Joggins Formation
Joggins Formation | ||
---|---|---|
Ma | ||
Approximate paleocoordinates 8°00′S 7°12′W / 8.0°S 7.2°W | | |
Region | Nova Scotia | |
Country | Canada | |
Extent | Cumberland Basin | |
Type section | ||
Named for | Joggins, Nova Scotia | |
Named by | Walter A. Bell | |
Year defined | 1914 | |
The Joggins Formation is a
The Joggins Formation's spectacular coastal
History
Early mining
Prior to European
French colonization of the Bay of Fundy began in 1604. Acadian miners from Beaubassin were the first Europeans to mine the cliffs at Joggins, taking advantage of the deposits less than a decade after Jean-Baptiste-Louis Franquelin visited the site in 1686. Though Franquelin failed to make any mention of coal on his 1686 map, the document precisely detailed the geography of Chignecto Bay, and in a more detailed map published in 1702 he named the Joggins Cliffs "Ance au Charbon", or "Cove of Coal".[2] The explorer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac reported coal in Chignecto Bay in 1692. According to a travelogue written by Robert Hale in 1731, coal had been mined from the Fundy Seam - one of the thickest coal veins at Joggins - for at least thirty years at the time of his visit, and though there are only sporadic allusions to these pre-English operations in written records the government of Nova Scotia recognized Acadian brothers René and Bernard LeBlanc as being the first to discover coal at Joggins in 1701.
Eastern Acadia was captured by Great Britain in the War of the Spanish Succession and became the colony of Nova Scotia; the territory was formally ceded by France in 1713's Peace of Utrecht. Though the British had likely been mining at Joggins since the occupation began in 1710, the first official record of a coal mine at Joggins was made in 1720, when Governor of Nova Scotia Richard Philipps complained that the trade of coal between Nova Scotia and New England was going unregulated. Captain Andrew Belcher was one of the first merchants to transport coal from the Acadian-run mines in Joggins to the city of Boston, which was in the grips of a coal shortage in the 1710s, and after Belcher's death in 1717 his son Jonathan Belcher continued to trade along this route.
Henry Cope's mine
Governor Richard Philipps approved the creation of a government-owned coal mine at Joggins in 1730, to test the feasibility of both mining the resource and loading onto ships at the site. The project was led by Major Henry Cope, who invested in the mine with his own money and enlisted the help of Boston merchants to help establish the mine at what is today known as "Coal Mine Point". Coal was first harvested from Cope's mine in April 1731, and the
Henry Cope and his fellow developers were granted a land grant to develop a 16.19 km2 (4,000 ac) area around the mine on 21 June 1732. By the terms of the land grant, several names in the area were changed: the cliffs were renamed to "Adventurer’s Clifts" and Gran’choggin to "New Castle Cove". The land grant also stipulated that Cope pay a tax of one shilling and sixpence for every chaldron mined, send coal to Annapolis Royal to support military fortifications there, and begin construction of a town that would be named "Williamstown". To further support the venture, Cope demanded his crew of miners - about a dozen local Acadians - pay him rent in exchange for living on his land and working in his mine. The men conspired with their Mi'kmaq neighbours, and a group of three Mi'kmaq men raided Cope's land in 1732. The mine, storehouses, and Stanwell Hall (the first house built by Cope at the site) were destroyed in the attack, setting back operations substantially. Cope was soon unable to make funding for the project stretch, and after he defaulted on paying wages to his workers the mine was abandoned in November 1732. With the support of Governor Richard Philipps and James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, Cope attempted to restore the mine in January 1733. As a condition of his sponsors, Philipps was tasked with building blockhouses at the top of the cliffs to provide the site with military protection. Though at least some of the necessary fortifications were built, the project was again abandoned by Cope, ending all operations at the mine.
British settlement
British
Acadian settlers continued to establish themselves in the region after the failed attempt to establish Norwich. In this period, the Acadians again began to mine for coal along the Grand Nyjagen cliffs and elsewhere, digging a line of coal pits from the coast to River Hebert, which came to be called the "Rivère des Mines des Hébert".
A geographical description of Nova Scotia was published in
Britain declared war on France on 17 May 1756, initiating the Seven Years' War. Governor Charles Lawrence petitioned the British government to reopen the Chignecto Bay mines in 1756 in order to fuel British regiments fighting in the Bay of Fundy region. The first British miners arrived at Grand Nyjagen in September 1757, selecting a mostly undisturbed section of cliff to dig into rather than Henry Cope's original mine.
After the Seven Years' War ended in 1763, coal mining at Grand Nyjagen again stopped entirely. A land grant which included the cliffs was given to Joseph Frederick Wallet Des Barres in 1764, but Des Barres proved to be an absentee landlord. Though Des Barres became an important figure elsewhere in Nova Scotia, his lack of interest in developing Grand Nyjagen led to the coal there being forgotten for six decades. Though most Acadians were deported during the Great Upheaval, a small number eventually returned and established short-lived villages in the area, including Shedd Fisheries at Mill Creek (present-day Minudie) and Joggin (present-day Maccan) at one of the River Hibert coal pits. While the Acadians did occasionally mine coal in this area, Des Barres only leased land to them if they promised to build grindstone quarries there. The most prosperous quarry was Bank Quarry (present-day Lower Cove), which operated for fifteen years between 1815 and 1830 and was the only source for Nova Scotia blue-grit, an important and popular grindstone. The owners of Bank Quarry - Joseph Read and John Seaman - used the wealth generated from their operation to open a second quarry (present-day Rockport) in New Brunswick. Read and Seaman's New Brunswick and Nova Scotia quarries came to be known as the "North Joggins" and "South Joggins", respectively, and the name "South Joggins" soon came to mean the cliffs in general. For thirty years between 1800 and 1830, shopkeeper William Harper managed a trade route using his schooner The Weasel, which traded basic commodities for grindstone at North Joggins and South Joggins before trading the grindstone to US and British colonists in the Passamaquoddy Bay region.
Despite a lack of any approval from Des Barres, British military forces mined for coal at Grand Nyjagen to supply
Following the death of Joseph Frederick Wallet Des Barres in October 1824, his family commissioned the younger brother of quarry-owner John Seaman, Amos Seaman, to collect on all outstanding rent from the quarries that Des Barres had leased on his land. Seaman and a business partner, William Fowler, took over the management and leasing of quarries in the area on behalf of the Des Barres family until 1834, when they purchased the land. In the time that Seaman owned the land quarries began to use "Joggins boats" to transport grindstone, which had been adapted from those used at the local fishery. As grindstone was quarried in parts of the coast that would be covered by water at high tide, the boats would come onto shore at low tide, be loaded as the miners worked, and then were sent off at high tide to deposit the stone elsewhere. As this kind of procedure could only safely be practiced in the summer there were no permanent bunkhouses set up for workers; instead, workers at South Joggins would establish seasonal camps at the top of the cliffs to be disassembled when the work dried up.
General Mining Association
The General Mining Association (GMA)
...gold and silver, coal, iron, stone, lime-stone, slate-stone, slate-rock, tin, copper, lead and all other mines, minerals and ores and all beds and seams of gold, silver, coal, iron, stone, lime-stone, slate-stone, slate-rock, tin, clay, copper, lead and ores of every kind and description belonging to his Majesty within the Province of Nova Scotia...[4]
Once the lease was issued, the Duke subletted it to Rundell, Bridge & Co. in exchange for 25% of all profits they generated off the minerals it covered. Rundell, Bridge & Co. founded a new firm, the General Mining Company, which would manage their Nova Scotian properties from London. Taking advantage of the region's natural resources, particularly coal, was imperative to the growth of British North America: fuel was hard to come by, the anthracite mined in the Coal Region of Pennsylvania being difficult to use and bituminous coal from the Appalachian Mountains proving costly to transport. The Association focused initially on deposits in Pictou and Sydney, where they were able to buy leases on preexisting mines and take advantage of infrastructure that was already in place. After acquiring the rights to Cape Breton (which had to be negotiated for separately) the GMA had established a monopoly over all the mines in Nova Scotia, and the Nova Scotia House of Assembly discouraged competition by refusing to grant leases to new mines even if doing so would not violate the terms of the Duke of York's lease. Though Des Barres's land claim had expired after his death, the GMA did not immediately make an attempt to establish themselves at Joggins, and actively discouraged anyone else from mining the Joggins Formation. Despite their urgings, small groups of Cornish settlers continued mining exposed coal veins in the area. By 1836 an illegal mine had sprung up around the King's Vein, accessed through an adit dug into the cliff wall where an outcropping had once been apparent.
Abraham Gesner returned to Nova Scotia in 1844 to petition the House of Assembly for the rights to mine at Joggins, as he felt the coal reserves had gone unused for too long and a shortage of firewood in
The General Mining Association lost many of its claims in 1858, but retained the right to mine from the Joggins Formation. By 1866, the Joggins Mine was producing an average of 8,478 chaldrons of coal per year, making it the least productive of any GMA mine in Nova Scotia. However, the Joggins Mine required only 9 horsepower of steam to operate normally and thus produced 943 chaldrons for each unit of horsepower expended, far more efficient than any other owned by the GMA.[4] In 1866 the company opened a new drift mine at Joggins: the New Mine. The New Mine harvested coal from the Dirty Seam and Fundy Seam (then known as the "hard scrabble seam"). Dendrochronological studies done on wood recovered from the site suggest that miners reused materials from earlier structures to construct the New Mine, as the lumber was determined to have been cut as early as 1849. Like earlier operations at Joggins, the New Mine was entered by an adit and coal was stored on-site until it could be transported to a wharf and loaded onto ships.
The New Mine was abandoned by the General Mining Association in 1871 and the land it was situated on was sold to the newly founded Joggins Coal Mining Company (JCMC), who opened a new mine to harvest the Fundy and Dirty Seams in 1872. Unlike the GMA, the JCMC used a
The Springhill and Parrsboro Coal and Rail Company, founded in 1872, acquired the General Mining Association's Cumberland County mineral rights in 1879,[6] ending the GMA's involvement in Joggins. Around this time control of the Joggins mining economy shifted from merchants in Saint John to financiers in Montreal, and in 1884 the Springhill and Parrsboro Coal and Rail Company sold out to the Cumberland Railway and Coal Company. The Joggins Railway was completed in 1887, connecting the town of Joggins directly to the rest of the Intercolonial Railway and further reducing the cost of transporting coal. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, miners in Cumberland County - including Joggins Mine - had a tradition of stopping work immediately after a death occurred in the mine and not recommencing until the killed worker's funeral, but by 1887 this was no longer the case and labourers were forced to mine even on the day of the funeral.[7]
Early geological research
Harvard University geologists Charles Thomas Jackson and Francis Alger published the first scientific notes regarding Joggins in 1828, followed the next year by Richard Smith and Richard Brown of the General Mining Association. Smith and Brown's report contained the first stratigraphic reconstruction of the Joggins Cliffs as well as the first mention of fossil lycopsids at the site,[8] which they believed had been fossilized when the forest they belonged to flooded and became covered in sediment.
Geologists Abraham Pineo Gesner and Charles Lyell arrived at Joggins on 28 July 1842. Gesner had earlier explored the cliffs in 1836, where he described them as "the place where the delicate herbage of a former world is now transmuted in stone".[3] Lyell at this time was famous for publishing his Principles of Geology (1830-1833), which popularized uniformitarianism, and was persuaded to visit Joggins after reading Gesner's 1836 observations of the cliffs and 1829 report by Brown and Smith. Based on these earlier studies, Lyell believed the cliffs represented multiple forests that had grown on the same site, being flooded and buried in succession many times, and that their fossilization was related to the formation of coal. As expected, Lyell and Gesner witnessed many fossil lycopsids at Joggins, which greatly inspired Lyell. On this expedition, Gesner noted the ruins of an abandoned fort which had partly collapsed with the eroding of the cliffside, a remnant of Major Henry Cope's attempt to restart his mining operation in 1733.[2] The geologists wrapped up their brief expedition on 30 July 1842. Their relationship deteriorated soon afterward as the two did not agree on the ages of strata in Nova Scotia, Lyell believing the Windsor Group was younger than the province's Coal Measures and Gesner believing the opposite to be true. Gesner did not return to Joggins after this falling out, and opened Canada's first public museum - the Museum of Natural History - in Saint John, New Brunswick later that year.
1843 survey
The Joggins Formation was first surveyed by William Edmond Logan.[9] Logan's theories of in situ coal formation at the Glamorganshire Coalfield in Wales had been published in 1840, challenging the accepted "drift theory". Logan had earlier completed two private surveys of the Nova Scotian coast in 1840 and 1841, both times searching for evidence the in situ theory applied to coal deposits other than the one he'd studied. The British government approved the creation of a survey to search for coal in the Province of Canada in September 1841. Logan and his supporters - including Director of the British Geological Survey Sir Henry De la Beche and early palaeontologist William Buckland - lobbied for him to lead the survey, and on 9 April 1842 he was named head of the Geological Survey of Canada.
Logan's work at Joggins was the first assignment he undertook for the survey and took place over the course of five days, from 6 June to 10 June 1843. Joggins was of particular interest to Logan after reading the work of
1852 survey
On Charles Lyell's third trip to the Americas, he made plans to visit Joggins a second time. He joined up with
Following the expedition, Charles Lyell took the fossils to be studied in
1855 also marked the only trip that Othniel Charles Marsh made to Joggins. Marsh had only recently begun to study at Yale University and was likely drawn to Joggins by the abundance of fossils described by Charles Lyell and John W. Dawson. Marsh returned to Yale with two vertebrae, which he described in 1862 as belonging to the marine reptile Eosaurus acadianus. Six years later Dawson commented that Marsh's description of Eosaurus closely resembled that of Ichthyosaurus, which at the time had only been found in European limestone dated to the Early Jurassic such as the quarries of Lyme Regis, deposits which the Joggins Formation predates by more than 100 million years. Vertebrate palaeontologists Donald Baird, Alfred Romer, and Robert L. Carroll have suggested that Marsh's Eosaurus actually represents fossils of Ichthyosaurus which Marsh purchased off someone who claimed they had been found at Joggins and then passed the find off as his own discovery.[3]
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin also followed Charles Lyell in trying to explain the origins of the Joggins coal beds. In 1847 he suggested to Joseph Dalton Hooker that the lycopsids at Joggins may have grown underwater, at depths between 5 and 100 fathoms. Hooker dismissed this idea in a letter to Darwin on 6 May 1847, a rejection Darwin described as a "savage onslaught".[3] William Logan's observations on Stigmaria had been published in 1841, where he noted that the fossils represented roots that had grown, died, and been preserved in the same place they had been discovered. While it was widely accepted that coal had once been plant material, Logan's notes on Stigmaria represented the first compelling evidence that coal was the product of terrestrial plants. Darwin made a major breakthrough in 1860 when John W. Dawson published his paper reporting the discovery of Dendropupa, a non-aquatic animal, in the trunk of a fossilized lycopsid at Joggins. This find convinced Darwin that the lycopsids had in fact grown on land and coal must have a terrestrial origin, existing first as peat.
John W. Dawson's later work
John W. Dawson returned to Joggins in the summer of 1853 without Charles Lyell, who had been hired to work for the
In studying the Joggins Formation, John W. Dawson collaborated not just with Charles Lyell, but also Augustus Addison Gould, Joseph Leidy, John William Salter, and Samuel Hubbard Scudder. Dawson's work at Joggins spanned a total of 44 years, his last update to Acadian Geology being published in 1891.
Early 20th century
The son of a mining engineer, Hugh Fletcher devoted his career as a geologist to surveying Nova Scotia on behalf of the Geological Survey of Canada. Fletcher's work began in 1875 and ended abruptly in 1909 when, on a mission to conduct a full survey of Nova Scotia, Fletcher fell ill with pneumonia studying the Joggins Formation and died. Reginald Walter Brock, a colleague of Fletcher and also of John W. Dawson, eulogized Fletcher by saying "he died, as he would have chosen, in harness, and amid the hills of his well-loved Nova Scotia".[13]
Based on
Holdfast Lodge
The Joggins Mine continued to produce coal throughout the First World War and even amid the great scientific interest surrounding the Joggins Formation. Production at the Joggins Mine peaked in 1916 when the mine generated 201,000 tons of coal over the course of the year.[6] The amount of workers in Joggins steadily increased with production, but as Nova Scotia deindustrialised and other mines shut down the percentage of Cumberland County miners employed at Joggins increased from 21% in the 1880s to 25% in the 1900s and 43% in the 1910s.[7]
The Provincial Workmen's Association (PWA) established an early foothold in Joggins, first with Brunswick Lodge and later with Holdfast Lodge. Brunswick Lodge was the first to represent Joggins Mine workers. In 1884 the union attempted to negotiate with their employer at the time, prompting the manager - known in contemporary accounts as "Mr. B." - to remove his gloves and threaten to beat every worker. The company withdrew from negotiations and offered workers $10.00 each to abandon the union and come back to work. The strike went on, and when one miner attempted to retrieve his wages from Mr. B. the manager threw a piece of cast iron at him. The miner retaliated by throwing the iron back at Mr. B., striking him in the head but causing no severe injuries. Despite the clear belligerence between the company and the workers, strikers eventually began to cross the picket line and Brunswick Lodge dissolved that year.
By 1895, Holdfast Lodge represented 20% of Joggins Mine's workers, the largest union in mainland Nova Scotia at the time.[16] The politics of Holdfast Lodge were considered radical even by the standards of other Provincial Miner Workers chapters in Nova Scotia. 15 of the 19 PMW strikes that were held in the 1890s happened in Cumberland County, and Holdfast Lodge organized three in 1895 alone. Robert Drummond, Grand Secretary of the PMW, was particularly annoyed by their negotiations and tactics, their membership being largely uneducated and militant. Amid the threat of a wage reduction in the winter of 1895–96, Holdfast Lodge ordered all Joggins Mine workers to strike despite being ordered by Drummond not to, and in mid-March 1896 an estimated 200 members of Holdfast Lodge barricaded themselves inside the local PWA meeting hall to resist arrest, arming themselves with bricks, a number of assorted small arms, and 27 rifles. Nonetheless, Premier William Stevens Fielding engaged with Holdfast Lodge in order to build a loyal and powerful voter base. Fielding was leader of the Anti-Confederation Party and had been elected on a promise to remove Nova Scotia from Confederation, and when he failed to fulfill this promise he refocused his efforts on expanding the province's coal industry instead. One of Fielding's unconventional tactics involved working with the PWA to improve workers' access to education. The federal Liberal Party also campaigned hard for the PWA, as Cumberland had long been a Conservative Party stronghold: Cumberland had only ever been represented by Conservative Members of Parliament since Confederation and in nine elections had supported Charles Tupper, who was leading the Conservatives in 1896. Support from Holdfast Lodge managed to turn Cumberland in favour of the Liberals, and Hance James Logan was elected to the Parliament on 23 June 1896.
The PWA succeeded in part because of their support for the community's funerary traditions, shutting down facilities like the Joggins Mine following a death and not returning to work until the deceased worker was put to rest. Such elaborate traditions had once been commonplace, but were mostly abandoned by the turn of the century until revived with the protection offered by unions. In 1898 the manager of Joggins Mine insisted the workers send a delegation to the funeral rather than shut down the mine for a day to attend; this request was ignored. In 1906, a funeral procession consisting of all the miners in Joggins marched from town to the Maccan River Bridge.
The PWA came into conflict not just with mine managers, but also with the
Child labour
Year | Child labourers | Percentage of
coal mine workforce[17] |
---|---|---|
1874 | 555 | 14.1 |
1876 | 565 | 16.1 |
1878 | 510 | 16.9 |
1880 | 519 | 17.1 |
1882 | 627 | 18.1 |
1884 | 768 | 16.8 |
1886 | 722 | 16.5 |
1888 | 740 | 17.2 |
1890 | 1,102 | 21.5 |
1892 | 882 | 15.6 |
1894 | 844 | 14.5 |
1896 | 699 | 12.3 |
1898 | 686 | 13.4 |
1900 | 735 | 13.4 |
1902 | 792 | 10.4 |
1904 | 877 | 8.3 |
1906 | 826 | 7.7 |
1908 | 921 | 7.6 |
1910 | 1,063 | 8.8 |
1912 | 922 | 7.4 |
1914 | 831 | 6.1 |
As was the case with many of Nova Scotia's mining operations, the coal mines at Joggins employed child labour when possible. Following the deaths of 70 miners and a single boy in the Drummond Mine explosion on 13 May 1873 in Westville, miners in Joggins adopted a rule of allowing children working in the mines to be the first to leave at the end of the day.[18] While children were paid less than their adult colleagues, their income was indispensable to mining families which were typically impoverished. Class disparity became obvious with the advent of education as a status symbol, poor children often abandoning school early in life to work the mines.
In August 1905 a number of child miners at Joggins left work on a recreational strike when they left work to play a game of baseball.
Ideas surrounding childhood began to shift in the mid-19th century. The Mines Act of 1873 prohibited anyone under the age of 10 from working in any Nova Scotian mine, and in 1891 the minimum age of miners was raised to 12. In 1908 legislation banned the employment of any child miner who had not completed a grade seven education. Nova Scotia adopted the Free Schools Act in 1864 to provide public funding for schools which agreed to follow provincial standards of education, and in 1883 public school boards were given the right to fine parents of children aged 7–12 if their child did not attend at least 80 days of school per year. Nova Scotia finally enforced province-wide compulsory attendance for children aged 7–14 in 1921. In 1923 the Mines Act was amended to ban children from coal mines altogether, raising the school-leaving age to 16 and prohibiting anyone below that age from working in a mine.[17]
Don Reid and the Joggins Fossil Centre
Donald R. "Don" Reid (1922-2016)
Don Reid was not the only person taking an interest in the site, and in 1972 a 1.6 km (1 mi) section of the Joggins Cliffs were protected under the Historical Objects Protection Act, which was repealed and replaced with the Special Places’ Protection Act in 1980 and prohibited
A number of institutions and societies honoured Don Reid for his contributions to palaeontology, particularly in the latter years of his life. In 2013, the
Recent history
The Joggins Formation, which had been treated only as a member of the Cumberland Group since 1944, was formally reclassified as its own formation in 1991. The new classification used the measurements of William Logan's 1843 survey and contained Divisions IV and V, as well as the base of Division III. While the decision to define this section as a distinct formation has been upheld in later studies, the exact boundaries of the Joggins Formation have been debated. In 2005, the Joggins Formation was reformulated to consist of only Division IV and the limestone base of Division III.
A bronze plaque was erected in Joggins in May 1992 to commemorate the 150-year anniversary of the Geological Survey of Canada's inception. The plaque is dedicated to the work of Sir William Logan.[20]
Hylonomus, the earliest-known amniote and one of the Joggins Formation's most famous genera, was featured on an official Canada Post stamp in 1992, and was made the official fossil of Nova Scotia in 2002.[23]
An international team of geologists remeasured the Joggins Formation in 2005, the first time such a procedure had been done since Charles Lyell and John W. Dawson's survey in 1853.[11]
To celebrate ten years as a UNESCO heritage site, the Joggins Fossil Institute hosted the first Joggins Research Symposium on 22 September 2018.[12] A number of improvements were suggested to improve the site for research and educational purposes, including the construction of a storage facility for fossil lycopsids recovered from the cliffs which could bear tetrapod fossils, the development of machine learning software to better identify fossils at the site, and revision of the Special Places Protection Act.
Geology
The Joggins Formation overlies the
The cliffs of the Joggins Section have eroded rapidly since the initial surveys were conducted, with estimates ranging as much as a 50 m (164 ft) change in the 152-year period between 1853 and 2005.[9] John W. Dawson estimated in 1882 that, based on four decades of observation, the cliffs erode at a rate of roughly 19 cm (7.5 ft) per year.[5] Estimates about how much of the Joggins Formation is actually exposed along the Joggins Cliffs range from 915.5 m (3,003.6 ft) to 2.8 km (1.7 mi).[12][11]
Grindstone quarries along the Joggins Section were once responsible for producing Nova Scotia blue-grit, a sandstone that was in high demand in the early-19th century.
Subdivision
The Joggins section consists of eight divisions of exposed strata along the southern shore of
Division IV
Division IV forms the basis of the Joggins Formation, with only a small amount of overlying strata being considered part of the broader formation. Measured originally by William Edmond Logan in 1843, Division IV consists of a 773.9 m (2,539 ft 1 in) stretch of coal-bearing strata along the Joggins Cliffs. Division IV has an aggregate coal thickness of 11.5 m (37 ft 9.5 in), contrasting with 7.1 m (23 ft 3 in) of limestone.[11] The base of the formation is located at Coal Group 45, at the Lower Cove of the Joggins Cliffs, and consists of seatearth, red shale, and sandstone. The roof of the division lies just above Coal Group 1, where 30.5 cm (1 ft) of coal is overlayed by 1.2 m (4 ft) of limestone.
Division IV is divided into 14 cycles, each representing successive flooding events which deposited biotic material into what is now the Joggins Formation. Each cycle is separated by deposits of limestone, shale, or coal; for instance, the Joggins Seam (formerly "the King's Vein") divides Cycle 12 and Cycle 13 of the Joggins Formation. Cycle 10 is 158 m (518.4 ft) thick, and stretches from the Queen's Vein to Coal Mine Point. Some coal seams are located within cycles rather than at the borders, such as the Fundy Seam which is located in Cycle 6. Cycle 5 represents the longest period of sediment accumulation in the Joggins Formation, and is more than 200 m (656.2 ft) long.
Other minerals found in Division IV include mudstone (red and grey), sandstone, shale (grey, red, red-grey, and chocolate), and minor conglomerates. Shale constitutes 34% of Division IV, aggregating 364 m (1,194.2 ft) of material. An ochre-coloured section of the Joggins Cliffs surrounding the Fundy Seam is not a natural phenomenon, but instead caused by iron-rich acids leaking out of the mine there.[8]
Other divisions
Division II contains predominately red sandstone and mudstone. Division II has not been considered part of the Joggins Formation since 1944.
Division III contains fewer coal groups and more red sandstone than Division IV, which it overlays, and no limestone. In total, Division III includes 22 coal seams with an aggregate thickness of 1.7 m (5 ft 5 in). The limestone base of Division III is considered part of the Joggins Formation, but the rest is not.
Composed largely of grey sandstone, red sandstone, and red mudstone, Division V also bears some green shale and limestone. Division V contains no coal groups, and stretches 634.6 m (2,082 ft) from Lower Cove to South Reef. Division V was considered to be part of the Joggins Formation when the formation was defined in 1914 and 1991, but has been considered distinct since 2005.
Coal
Coal is abundant in the Joggins Formation and surrounding Joggins Cliffs, and was mined for centuries. There are 45 coal groups located in the formation. Coal Group 45 lies at the base of the Joggins Formation, and though the section assigned to this group stretches 3.1 m (10 ft 2 in) from start to finish, only 7.6 cm (3 in) of this actually represents basal coal.
Two of the most heavily mined deposits of coal - the Fundy Seam and Dirty Seam - are part of the Joggins Formation. The Fundy Seam is 0.85 m (2.8 ft) thick, and is made of bituminous coal, while the Dirty Seam is 1.5 m (4.9 ft) thick and made of clastic-rich coal; they are present at 420 m (1,378 ft) and 428 m (1,404.2 ft) above the formation's stratigraphic base.[5] Other major seams in the Joggins Formation include the Joggins Seam (formerly the "King's Vein" and "Coal 7"), Queen's Seam ("Coal 8"), Forty Brine Seam ("Coal 20"), and Kimberly Seam ("Coal 14"). The majority of the Joggins Formation lies between Coal 34 and Coal 45, where coal is abundant.
Coal harvested from Joggins was described as being "of inferior quality abounding with
Fossil Lycopsids
The Joggins Formation is of particular interest to geologists for its saturation with fossilized plants, one of the best-preserved
Though lycopsid trunks are among the best known plants from the Joggins Formation, the genus Calamites represents more fossils than almost any other organism preserved in the Joggins Cliffs. Resembling the modern-day horsetails they are related to, the stems Calamites plants typically grew to be 10–12 cm (3.9-4.7 in) in diameter and more than 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall, though one specimen was found to be 90 cm (35.4 in) thick and nearly 3 m (9.8 ft) tall.[20] Calamites grew mostly upright, spacing 15–30 cm (5.9-11.8 in) apart from each other and forming a thick forest floor. Usually, only the lower portion of Calamites plants was preserved, but their mostly-intact fossils suggest they were buried very quickly, likely by the same methods which preserved lycopsid trunks. Despite the comparative notoriety of Joggins's fossil lycopsids and Hylonomus, no specimens of Hylonomus have ever been recovered from inside a lycopsid trunk; this likely due to the incompleteness of the fossil record.[8]
Fossil lycopsids are most often discovered in intervals between the Coal 29 (the Fundy Seam) and Coal 35.[8]
Palaeobiology
Dozens of tetrapod, invertebrate, and plant fossils have been recovered from the Joggins Formation. A diverse array of ichnofossils have also been found at Joggins, including vertebrate trackways, invertebrate trace fossils, tunnel structures, rhizoliths, and possibly wood borings.[12]
Fish coprolites are abundant in the limestone of the Joggins Formation, averaging lengths of 2–3 cm (0.79-1.18 in).[12] Research into these coprolites suggests that carnivorous fishes were far more prevalent in the region than herbivorous ones. Bone fragments have been found in nearly every fish coprolite at Joggins, though none have ever been successfully matched to a vertebrate genus.
Hydrology
... these beds carry our thoughts back to a period when the district was covered by a strange and now extinct vegetation, and when its physical condition resembled that of the Great Dismal Swamp, the Everglades, or the Delta of the Mississippi.[8]
Rivers and streams up to 6 m (19.7 ft) wide irrigated the region's rainforests for millions of years. A channel preserved in Cycle 9, at 580 m (1,902.9 ft) from the formation's base, represents a narrow distributary which delivered water directly to the sea, while the sediments found at Coal Mine Point suggest a meandering river covered the site. Sediments preserved at the top of each cycle suggest that the area witnessed a long trend of minor flooding which preceded a heavy drowning event, the latter creating the boundaries between cycles. The area was located very close to the coast, the exact proximity changing with rises and falls in sea level. Though the tides had a great deal of influence on the waterways in the area, there are no tidal indicators recorded in the Joggins strata.
The "Hebert beds" are located in Cycle 5, roughly 270–274 m (886–899 ft) from the base of the Joggins Formation. While the name of this area is an informal designation, the Hebert beds are of great value to palaeontologists for the amount of fossils located at the site. It is believed that the Hebert beds once hosted deep watering holes, which sustained surrounding plants and animals during dry seasons and prolonged droughts. Fossils found at the Hebert beds include Archanodon and Dendropupa shells.
Animals
Amphibians
Amphibians reported from the Joggins Formation[24][25] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
A. longidentatum |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 |
|
|||
A. anthracos |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XII, coal-group 26 |
|
|||
B. minor |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XII, coal-group 26 |
|
|||
D. acadianum |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 |
|
|||
D. confusum |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XII, coal-group 26 | ||||
D. helogenes |
||||||
D. helogenes |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 |
|
|||
H. dawsoni |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 |
|
|||
L. problematicum |
Coal Mine Point |
|
|
|||
indeterminate |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XII, coal-group 26 |
|
|||
S. aciedentatum |
|
|||||
S. silvae |
|
|||||
T. megalodon |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XII, coal-group 26 |
|
|||
unidentified cochleosaurid |
indeterminate |
Annelids
Annelids reported from the Joggins Formation[24] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
S. carbonarius |
Arthropods
Arthropods reported from the Joggins Formation[24] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
indeterminate |
||||||
C. bairdiodes |
||||||
C. salteriana |
||||||
C. altilis |
||||||
C. elongata |
||||||
C. fabulina |
||||||
C. humilis |
||||||
C. pungens |
||||||
C. rankiniana |
||||||
C. secans |
||||||
C. triangularis |
||||||
|
G. carbonarius |
|||||
H. rugulosa |
||||||
M. acadica |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 | ||||
indeterminate |
||||||
P. dubius |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
X. sigillariae |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 | ||||
unidentified eurypterid (possibly Hibbertopterus/Mycterops) |
indeterminate |
|
||||
unidentified scorpion |
indeterminate |
|
Fish
Fishes reported from the Joggins Formation[24] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
A. pectinatus |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
C. plicatus |
||||||
C. cristatus |
||||||
G. duplicatus |
||||||
H. cf. corrugata |
||||||
H. cf. canadensis |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
S. cristatus |
||||||
S. plicatus |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
unidentified acanthodian |
indeterminate |
|||||
unidentified cartilaginous fish |
indeterminate |
|||||
unidentified coelacanth |
indeterminate |
|
||||
unidentified crossopterygian (possibly Rhizodopsis/Strepsodus) |
indeterminate |
Molluscs
Molluscs reported from the Joggins Formation[24]
| ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
A. westonis |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
D. vetusta |
||||||
N. carbonarius |
||||||
N. longus |
||||||
P. bigsbii |
||||||
Z. priscus |
Reptiles
Reptiles reported from the Joggins Formation[24][25] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
H. latidens |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 | ||||
H. lyelli |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 |
|
Reptiliomorphs
Reptiliomorphs reported from the Joggins Formation[24][32] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
C. watsoni |
|
Synapsids
Synapsids reported from the Joggins Formation[24]
| ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
A. platyris[29] |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 |
|
|||
N. multidens |
||||||
P. haplous |
Incertae sedis
Animals placed incertae sedis reported from the Joggins Formation[24] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
E. acadiensis |
possibly Lyme Regis, West Dorset, England |
|||||
"Hylerpeton" intermedium[29] |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XII, coal-group 26 |
|
Plants
Cycads
Cycads reported from the Joggins Formation[24] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
A. decurrens |
||||||
A. discrepans |
||||||
A. cf. urophylla |
||||||
E. obtusiloba |
||||||
E. trigonophylla |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
K. cf. dernoncourtii |
||||||
K. grandepinnata |
||||||
K. tennesseana |
||||||
M. abnormis |
||||||
M. comata |
||||||
M. disjuncta |
||||||
N. schlehanii |
||||||
N. cf. blissi |
||||||
N. cf. hollandica |
||||||
N. obliqua |
||||||
N. tenuifolia |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
P. alata |
||||||
P. furcata |
||||||
P. pseudogigantea |
||||||
S. valida |
||||||
T. parkinsoni |
Ferns
Ferns reported from the Joggins Formation[8][24][34] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
A. acicularis |
||||||
A. aculeata |
||||||
A. asteris |
||||||
A. latifolia |
||||||
A. cf. stellata |
||||||
A. charaeformis |
||||||
A. equisetiformis |
||||||
A. grandis |
||||||
B. schatzlarensis |
||||||
C. carinatus |
||||||
C. cf. goeppertii |
||||||
C. suckowi |
||||||
indeterminate |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 | ||||
indeterminate |
||||||
C. angustissima |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
M. magnificum |
||||||
O. brongniartii |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
R. crepinii |
||||||
R. footneri |
||||||
R. gracilis |
||||||
R. rotundifolia |
||||||
R. cf. schatzlarensis |
||||||
S. plumosa |
||||||
S. cf. kidstonii |
||||||
S. deltiformis |
||||||
S. dixonii |
||||||
S. effusa |
||||||
S. fletcheri |
||||||
S. moyseyi |
||||||
S. schwerinii |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
S. amoena |
||||||
Z. delicatula |
||||||
Z. frenzlii |
||||||
Z. hymenophylloides |
||||||
Z. pilosa |
||||||
Z. schaumburg-lippeana |
||||||
indeterminate |
indeterminate |
|
Lycophytes
Lycophytes reported from the Joggins Formation[8][24][34] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
B. punctatum |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
C. diabolicus |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
L. aculeatum |
||||||
"L". bretonense |
||||||
L. cf. fusiforme |
||||||
L. lycopodioides |
||||||
L. cf. obovatum |
||||||
L. worthenii |
||||||
L. laricinus |
||||||
L. lanceolatum |
||||||
L. majus |
||||||
L. morrisianum |
||||||
|
L. olryi |
|||||
L. ornatus |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
S. cf. laevigata |
||||||
S. mamillaris |
||||||
S. cf. rayosa |
||||||
S. cf. rugosa |
||||||
S. scutellata |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
S. ficoides |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 | ||||
indeterminate |
||||||
T. mamillarus |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
unidentified lepidocarpal |
indeterminate |
Progymnosperms
Progymnosperms reported from the Joggins Formation[24][34] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
A. adiantoides |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
C. dawsoni |
||||||
C. palmaeformis |
||||||
C. principalis |
||||||
C. cf. dumusum |
||||||
|
indeterminate |
|||||
M. cf. sutcliff |
||||||
indeterminate |
Coal Mine Point | Division 4, Section XV, coal-group 15 | ||||
P. rhomboideus |
||||||
indeterminate |
Protists
Protists reported from the Joggins Formation[24] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
Ichnogenera
Invertebrate ichnofossils
Invertebrate trace fossils reported from the Joggins Formation[12][24] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
P. hebrati |
||||||
P. tekularis |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
P. beverlexensis |
||||||
P. montanus |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
R. jenese |
||||||
S. linearis |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
T. annulata |
||||||
T. barretti |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
T. pollardi |
||||||
indeterminate |
Vertebrate ichnofossils
Vertebrate trace fossils reported from the Joggins Formation[24][35] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Genus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Images | |
A. obtusum |
||||||
A. quadratum |
||||||
A. avipes |
||||||
A. flexilis |
||||||
B. arctus |
||||||
B. confusus |
||||||
B. unguifer |
||||||
B. sydnensis |
||||||
C. dawsoni |
||||||
D. celer |
||||||
D. quadrifidus |
||||||
H. minor |
||||||
H. hardingi |
||||||
L. mcnaughtoni |
||||||
M. velox |
||||||
O. trifudus |
||||||
P. caudifer |
||||||
P. unguifer |
||||||
indeterminate |
||||||
Q. levis |
||||||
S. adamsii |
||||||
indeterminate |
indeterminate |
tetrapod tracks[22] |
See also
- Coal forest
- Geology of Nova Scotia
- List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Nova Scotia
- List of World Heritage sites in Canada
References
- ^ a b "Joggins Fossil Cliffs". UNESCO. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
- ^ a b c d e Falcon-Lang, Howard J. (2009). "Earliest history of coal mining and grindstone quarrying at Joggins, Nova Scotia, and its implications for the meaning of the place name "Joggins"". Atlantic Geology. Atlantic Geoscience Society.
- ^ a b c d e f g Calder, John H. (2006). ""Coal Age Galapagos": Joggins and the Lions of Nineteenth Century Geology". Atlantic Geology. Atlantic Geoscience Society.
- ^ a b c d e Gerriets, Marilyn (Autumn 1991). "The Impact of the General Mining Association on the Nova Scotia Coal Industry, 1826-1850". Acadiensis. 21 (1): 54–84.
- ^ a b c d Quann, Sarah L.; Young, Amanda B.; Laroque, Colin P.; Falcon-Lang, Howard J.; Gibling, Martin R. (20 December 2010). "Dendrochronological dating of coal mine workings at the Joggins Fossil Cliffs, Nova Scotia, Canada". Atlantic Geology. Atlantic Geoscience Society.
- ^ a b Summerby-Murray, Robert (2007). "Interpreting Personalized Industrial Heritage in the Mining Towns of Cumberland County, Nova Scotia: Landscape Examples from Springhill and River Hebert". The Politics and Memory of Deindustrialization in Canada. 35 (2).
- ^ a b McKay, Ian (1986). "The Realm of Uncertainty: The Experience of Work in the Cumberland Coal Mines, 1873-1927". Acadiensis. 16 (1): 3–57.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Calder, John H.; Gibling, Martin R.; Scott, Andrew C.; Davies, Sarah J.; Hebert, Brian L. (2006). "A fossil lycopsid forest succession in the classic Joggins section of Nova Scotia: Paleoecology of a disturbance-prone Pennsylvanian wetland". Wetlands Through Time. 399.
- ^ a b c d e f Rygel, Michael C.; Shipley, Brian C. (2005). ""Such a section as never was put together before": Logan, Dawson, Lyell, and mid-Nineteenth-Century measurements of the Pennsylvanian Joggins section of Nova Scotia". Atlantic Geology. Atlantic Geoscience Society.
- ^ Lyell, Charles; Dawson, J. W. (1 February 1853). "On the Remains of a Reptile (Dendrerpeton Acadianum, Wyman and Owen) and of a Land Shell discovered in the Interior of an Erect Fossil Tree in the Coal Measures of Nova Scotia". Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. 9. Geological Society: 58–67.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Davies, S.J.; Gibling, M. R.; Rygel, M. C.; Calder, J. H.; Skilliter, D.M. (2005). "The Pennsylvanian Joggins Formation of Nova Scotia: sedimentological log and stratigraphic framework of the historic fossil cliffs". Atlantic Geology. Atlantic Geoscience Society.
- ^ a b c d e f g Joggins Fossil Centre. "Joggins Fossil Institute Abstracts 2018: 1st Joggins Research Symposium". Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
- ^ Byron, Jennie. "Sir Hugh Fletcher and the Fletcher Geology Club - Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ Matthew, George Frederick (1903). "On batrachian and other footprints from the Coal Measures of Joggins, N.S.". Bulletin of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick. 5. Natural History Society of New Brunswick: 103–108.
- ^ Utting, John; Giles, Peter S.; Dolby, Graham (2010). "Palynostratigraphy of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian rocks, Joggins area, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, Canada". Palynology. 34. Taylor & Francis Online: 43–89.
- ^ McKay, Ian (1986). ""By Wisdom, Wile, or War": The Provincial Workmen's Association and the Struggle for Working-Class Independence in Nova Scotia, 1879-97". Labour/Le Travail. 18: 13–62.
- ^ a b McIntosh, Robert (1986). "The Boys in the Nova Scotian Coal Mines: 1873-1923". Acadiensis. University of New Brunswick: 36–50.
- ^ McIntosh, Robert (2000). Boys in the Pits: Child Labour in Coal Mines. McGill–Queen's University Press.
- ^ Reid, Barbara; Calder, John. "Donald R. Reid (1922-2016), Keeper of the Cliffs". Historic Nova Scotia. Department of Communities, Culture and Heritage. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ a b c Ferguson, Laing. "The fossil cliffs of Joggins". Wat On Earth. University of Waterloo. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ Luck, Shaina (19 November 2016). "Don Reid, fossil collector, dies at 94". Canadian Broadcast Company. CBC News. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ a b c Stimson, Matt; Calder, John; Hebert, Brian (2015). "The top predator of Joggins and its tracker Donald Reid" (PDF). Atlantic Geology. 51 (1). Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ "Provincial Fossil Act". Office of the Legislative Counsel, Nova Scotia House of Assembly. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Joggins Fossil Centre. "The Faunal Record of Biodiversity at Joggins" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
- ^ a b Hay, Oliver Perry (1902). "Bibliography and Catalogue of the Fossil Vertebrata of North America". Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey. 179. United States Geological Survey.
- PMID 30662726.
- ^ Hoe, Angela. "Dendrerpeton and Joggins, Nova Scotia". Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
- ^ a b c Carroll, Robert Lynn; Gaskill, Pamela (1978). "The Order Microsauria". Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. 126. American Philosophical Society.
- ^ .
- ^ Scudder, Samuel H. (1895). "Canadian Fossil Insects - Myriapods and Arachnids". Contributions to Canadian Palaeontology. 2 (1). Geological Survey of Canada: 63–65.
- ^ Dawson, J. W. (1860). "On a Terrestrial Mollusk, a Chilognathous Myriapod, and some New Species of Reptiles, from the Coal-Formation of Nova Scotia". Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London. 16. Geological Society of America: 268–277.
- ^ a b c Scott, Andrew C. (1998). "The legacy of Charles Lyell: advances in our knowledge of coal and coal-bearing strata". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 143. Royal Holloway University of London: 243–260.
- ^ Steen, Margaret C. (1934). "The amphibian fauna from the South Joggins, Nova Scotia". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 3. Committee of Science and Correspondence: 465–504.
- ^ a b c J.W. Dawson. "The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geological History of Plants". Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
- ^ Nova Scotia Museum of History. "Who Dunnit? - Highway of Life". Archived from the original on 28 June 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
External links
- Joggins Fossil Cliffs UNESCO World Heritage Site on YouTube
- Various Contributors to the Paleobiology Database. "Fossilworks: Gateway to the Paleobiology Database". Retrieved 17 December 2021.