John F. Kennedy
John F. Kennedy | |
---|---|
![]() Oval Office portrait, 1963 | |
35th President of the United States | |
In office January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963 | |
Vice President | Lyndon B. Johnson |
Preceded by | Dwight D. Eisenhower |
Succeeded by | Lyndon B. Johnson |
United States Senator from Massachusetts | |
In office January 3, 1953 – December 22, 1960 | |
Preceded by | Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. |
Succeeded by | Benjamin A. Smith II |
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 11th district | |
In office January 3, 1947 – January 3, 1953 | |
Preceded by | James Michael Curley |
Succeeded by | Tip O'Neill |
Personal details | |
Born | John Fitzgerald Kennedy May 29, 1917 Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S. |
Died | November 22, 1963 Dallas, Texas, U.S. | (aged 46)
Manner of death | Assassination |
Resting place | Arlington National Cemetery |
Political party | Democratic |
Spouse | |
Children | 4, including Caroline, John Jr., and Patrick |
Parents | |
Relatives | Kennedy family Bouvier family (by marriage) |
Education | Harvard University (AB) |
Signature | ![]() |
Military service | |
Allegiance | United States |
Branch/service | United States Navy |
Years of service | 1941–1945 |
Rank | Lieutenant |
Unit |
|
Battles/wars | |
Awards | |
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also known as JFK, was the 35th president of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the youngest person elected president at 43 years.[a] Kennedy served at the height of the Cold War, and the majority of his foreign policy concerned relations with the Soviet Union and Cuba. A Democrat, Kennedy represented Massachusetts in both houses of the United States Congress prior to his presidency.
Born into the prominent
Kennedy's presidency saw high tensions with communist states in the Cold War. He increased the number of
On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in
Early life and education

John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born outside
Kennedy's father amassed a private fortune and established
In September 1931, Kennedy started attending Choate, a preparatory boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut.[18] Rose had wanted John and Joe Jr. to attend a Catholic school, but Joe Sr. thought that if they were to compete in the political world, they needed to be with boys from prominent Protestant families.[19] John spent his first years at Choate in his older brother's shadow and compensated with rebellious behavior that attracted a clique. Their most notorious stunt was exploding a toilet seat with a firecracker. In the next chapel assembly, the headmaster, George St. John, brandished the toilet seat and spoke of "muckers" who would "spit in our sea," leading Kennedy to name his group "The Muckers Club," which included roommate and lifelong friend Lem Billings.[20][21] Kennedy graduated from Choate in June 1935, finishing 64th of 112 students.[12] He had been the business manager of the school yearbook and was voted the "most likely to succeed."[20]

Kennedy intended to study under Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, as his older brother had done. Ill health forced his return to the U.S. in October 1935, when he enrolled late at Princeton University, but had to leave after two months due to gastrointestinal illness.[22]
In September 1936, Kennedy enrolled at
In July 1938, Kennedy sailed overseas with his older brother to work at the
While Kennedy was an upperclassman at Harvard, he began to take his studies more seriously and developed an interest in
In 1940, Kennedy graduated
U.S. Naval Reserve (1941–1945)
Kennedy planned to attend

In January 1942, Kennedy was assigned to the ONI field office at Headquarters,
Commanding PT-109 and PT-59
In April 1943, Kennedy was assigned to Motor Torpedo Squadron TWO,
Almost immediately, the PT-109 rescue became a highly publicized event. The story was chronicled by John Hersey in The New Yorker in 1944 (decades later it was the basis of a successful film).[55] It followed Kennedy into politics and provided a strong foundation for his appeal as a leader.[56] Hersey portrayed Kennedy as a modest, self-deprecating hero.[57] For his courage and leadership, Kennedy was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, and the injuries he suffered during the incident qualified him for a Purple Heart.[56]
After a month's recovery Kennedy returned to duty, commanding the
On August 12, 1944, Kennedy's older brother,
Journalism (1945)
In April 1945, Kennedy's father, who was a friend of William Randolph Hearst, arranged a position for his son as a special correspondent for Hearst Newspapers; the assignment kept Kennedy's name in the public eye and "expose[d] him to journalism as a possible career".[71] That May he went to Berlin as a correspondent,[72] covering the Potsdam Conference and other events.[73]
U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1953)
Kennedy's elder brother Joe Jr. had been the family's political standard-bearer and had been tapped by their father to seek the presidency. After Joe's death, the assignment fell to JFK as the second eldest.[74] Boston mayor Maurice J. Tobin discussed the possibility of John becoming his running mate in 1946 as a candidate for Massachusetts lieutenant governor, but Joe Sr. preferred a congressional campaign that could send John to Washington, where he could have national visibility.[75]

At the urging of Kennedy's father, U.S. Representative
spent hours on the phone with reporters and editors, seeking information, trading confidences, and cajoling them into publishing puff pieces on John, ones that invariably played up his war record in the Pacific. He oversaw a professional advertising campaign that ensured ads went up in just the right places the campaign had a virtual monopoly on [Boston] subway space, and on window stickers ("Kennedy for Congress") for cars and homes and was the force behind the mass mailing of Hersey's PT-109 article.[78]
Though Republicans took control of the House in the 1946 elections, Kennedy defeated his Republican opponent in the general election, taking 73 percent of the vote.[79]
As a congressman, Kennedy had a reputation for not taking much interest in the running of his office or his constituents' concerns, with one of the highest absenteeism rates in the House, although much was explained by illness.[80] George Smathers, one of his few political friends at the time, claimed that he was more interested in being a writer than a politician, and at that time he suffered from extreme shyness.[80] Kennedy found "most of his fellow congressmen boring, preoccupied as they all seemed to be with their narrow political concerns". The arcane House rules and customs, which slowed legislation, exasperated him.[81]
Kennedy served in the House for six years, joining the influential
To appeal to the large
Almost every weekend that Congress was in session, Kennedy would fly back to Massachusetts to give speeches to veteran, fraternal, and civic groups, while maintaining an index card file on individuals who might be helpful for a campaign for statewide office.
U.S. Senate (1953–1960)

As early as 1949, Kennedy began preparing to run for the Senate in
Kennedy underwent several spinal operations over the next two years. Often absent from the Senate, he was at times critically ill and received Catholic last rites. During his convalescence in 1956, he published Profiles in Courage, a book about U.S. senators who risked their careers for their personal beliefs, for which he won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957.[98] Rumors that this work was ghostwritten by his close adviser and speechwriter, Ted Sorensen, were confirmed in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography.[99] In response to criticism that the book included only men, in 1958 he published an article in the women's magazine McCall's that honored "Three Women of Courage," by adding Jeannette Rankin, Anne Hutchinson, and Prudence Crandall to his Hall of Fame.[100][101]
At the start of his first term, Kennedy focused on fulfilling the promise of his campaign to do "more for Massachusetts" than his predecessor. Although Kennedy's and Lodge's legislative records were similarly liberal, Lodge voted for the
As a senator, Kennedy quickly won a reputation for responsiveness to requests from constituents (i.e., co-sponsoring legislation to provide federal loans to help rebuild communities damaged by the
In 1954, when the Senate voted to condemn Joseph McCarthy for breaking Senate rules and abusing an Army general, Kennedy was the only Democrat not to cast a vote against him.[114] Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the censure. However, it was not delivered because Kennedy was hospitalized for back surgery in Boston.[115] Although Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted, the episode damaged his support among members of the liberal community in the 1956 and 1960 elections.[116]
In 1956, Kennedy gained control of the Massachusetts Democratic Party,[117] and delivered the state delegation to the party's presidential nominee, Adlai Stevenson II, at the Democratic National Convention in August.[118] Stevenson let the convention select the vice presidential nominee. Kennedy finished second in the balloting, losing to Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee, but receiving national exposure.[119]
In 1957, Kennedy joined the Senate's
That same year, Kennedy joined the Senate's
Kennedy cast a procedural vote against President Eisenhower's bill for the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and this was considered by some to be an appeasement of Southern Democratic opponents of the bill.[126] Kennedy did vote for Title III of the act, which would have given the Attorney General powers to enjoin, but Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson agreed to let the provision die as a compromise measure.[127] Kennedy also voted for the "Jury Trial Amendment." Many civil rights advocates criticized that vote as one which would weaken the act.[128] A final compromise bill, which Kennedy supported, was passed in September 1957.[129] As a senator from Massachusetts, which lacked a sizable Black population, Kennedy was not particularly sensitive to the problems of African Americans. Robert Kennedy later reflected, "We weren't thinking of the Negroes of Mississippi or Alabama—what should be done for them. We were thinking of what needed to be done in Massachusetts."[130]

Most historians and political scientists who have written about Kennedy refer to his U.S. Senate years as an interlude.[133] According to Robert Dallek, Kennedy called being a senator "the most corrupting job in the world." He complained that they were all too quick to cut deals and please campaign contributors to ensure their political futures. Kennedy, with the luxury of a rich father who could finance his campaigns, could remain independent of any special interest, except for those in his home state of Massachusetts that could align against his reelection.[134] According to Robert Caro, Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson viewed Kennedy as a "playboy", describing his performance in the Senate and the House as "pathetic" on another occasion, saying that he was "smart enough, but he doesn't like the grunt work".[135] Author John T. Shaw acknowledges that while his Senate career is not associated with acts of "historic statesmanship" or "novel political thought," Kennedy made modest contributions as a legislator, drafting more than 300 bills to assist Massachusetts and the New England region (some of which became law).[136]
In 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to the Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, with 73.6 percent of the vote, the largest winning margin in the history of Massachusetts politics.[96] In the aftermath of his re-election, Kennedy began preparing to run for president by traveling throughout the U.S. with the aim of building his candidacy for 1960.[137][120]
1960 presidential election

On January 2, 1960, Kennedy announced his candidacy for the Democratic presidential nomination.[138] Though some questioned Kennedy's age and experience, his charisma and eloquence earned him numerous supporters. Kennedy faced several potential challengers, including Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson, Adlai Stevenson II, and Senator Hubert Humphrey.[139]
Kennedy traveled extensively to build his support. His campaign strategy was to win several primaries to demonstrate his electability to the
When Kennedy entered the convention, he had the most delegates, but not enough to ensure that he would win the nomination.[142] Stevenson—the 1952 and 1956 presidential nominee—remained very popular, while Johnson also hoped to win the nomination with support from party leaders. Kennedy's candidacy also faced opposition from former President Harry S. Truman, who was concerned about Kennedy's lack of experience. Kennedy knew that a second ballot could give the nomination to Johnson or someone else, and his well-organized campaign was able to earn the support of just enough delegates to win the presidential nomination on the first ballot.[143]
Kennedy ignored the opposition of his brother Robert, who wanted him to choose labor leader
For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier. ... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them.[147]
At the start of the fall general election campaign, the Republican nominee and incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon held a six-point lead in the polls.[148] Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, the Cuban Revolution, and whether the space and missile programs of the Soviet Union had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12: "I am not the Catholic candidate for president. I am the Democratic Party candidate for president who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters—and the Church does not speak for me."[149] He promised to respect the separation of church and state, and not to allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy.[150][151]
The Kennedy and Nixon campaigns agreed to a series of televised debates.[152] An estimated 70 million Americans, about two-thirds of the electorate, watched the first debate on September 26.[153] Kennedy had met the day before with the producer to discuss the set design and camera placement. Nixon, just out of the hospital after a painful knee injury, did not take advantage of this opportunity and during the debate looked at the reporters asking questions and not at the camera. Kennedy wore a blue suit and shirt to cut down on glare and appeared sharply focused against the gray studio background. Nixon wore a light-colored suit that blended into the gray background; in combination with the harsh studio lighting that left Nixon perspiring, he offered a less-than-commanding presence. By contrast, Kennedy appeared relaxed, tanned, and telegenic, looking into the camera whilst answering questions.[154][152] It is often claimed that television viewers overwhelmingly believed Kennedy, appearing to be the more attractive of the two, had won, while radio listeners (a smaller audience) thought Nixon had defeated him.[153][155][156] However, only one poll split TV and radio voters like this and the methodology was poor.[157] Pollster Elmo Roper concluded that the debates raised interest, boosted turnout, and gave Kennedy an extra two million votes, mostly as a result of the first debate.[158] The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role.[98]

Kennedy's campaign gained momentum after the first debate, and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Election Day, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote,
Presidency (1961–1963)
Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. In
All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you.[161]
The address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart a historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily political realities would be one of the main tensions of the early years of his administration.[162]
Kennedy scrapped the decision-making structure of Eisenhower,[163] preferring an organizational structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president; he was willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment.[164] Though the cabinet remained important, Kennedy generally relied more on his staffers within the Executive Office.[165] In spite of concerns over nepotism, Kennedy's father insisted that Robert Kennedy become U.S. Attorney General, and the younger Kennedy became the "assistant president" who advised on all major issues.[166]
Foreign policy
Cold War and flexible response
Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests in the global state of tension known as the
In January 1961, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev declared his support for wars of national liberation. Kennedy interpreted this step as a direct threat to the "free world."[171][172]
Decolonization and the Congo Crisis

Between 1960 and 1963,
During the election campaign, Kennedy attacked the Eisenhower administration for losing ground on the African continent,[175] and stressed that the U.S. should be on the side of anti-colonialism and self-determination.[176] Kennedy considered the Congo Crisis to be among the most important foreign policy issues facing his presidency, and he supported a UN operation that prevented the secession of Katanga.[177] Moïse Tshombe, leader of Katanga, declared its independence from the Congo and the Soviet Union responded by sending weapons and technicians to underwrite their struggle.[176] On October 2, 1962, Kennedy signed United Nations bond issue bill to ensure U.S. assistance in financing UN peacekeeping operations in the Congo and elsewhere.[178]
Peace Corps

In one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy signed
Vienna Summit and the Berlin Wall
Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Nikita Khrushchev. The proceedings for the summit got off to a problematic start when Kennedy reacted aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation in early 1961. The speech was intended for domestic audiences in the Soviet Union, but Kennedy interpreted it as a personal challenge. His mistake helped raise tensions going into the Vienna summit.[186] The summit would cover several topics, but both leaders knew that the most contentious issue would be Berlin, which had been divided in two with the start of the Cold War. The enclave of West Berlin lay within Soviet-allied East Germany, but was supported by the U.S. and other Western powers. The Soviets wanted to reunify Berlin under the control of East Germany, partly due to the large number of East Germans who had fled to West Berlin.[187]
On June 4, 1961, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna and left the meeting angry and disappointed that he had allowed the premier to bully him, despite the warnings he had received. Khrushchev, for his part, was impressed with the president's intelligence but thought him weak. Kennedy did succeed in conveying the bottom line to Khrushchev on the most sensitive issue before them, a proposed treaty between Moscow and East Berlin. He made it clear that any treaty interfering with U.S. access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war.[188] Shortly after Kennedy returned home, the Soviet Union announced its plan to sign a treaty with East Berlin, abrogating any third-party occupation rights in either sector of the city. Kennedy assumed that his only option was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring.[189]
In the weeks immediately following the summit, more than 20,000 people fled from East Berlin to the western sector, reacting to statements from the Soviet Union. Kennedy began intensive meetings on the Berlin issue, where Dean Acheson took the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies.[190] In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $3.25 billion (equivalent to $33.14 billion in 2023) to the defense budget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. The speech received an 85% approval rating.[191]
A month later, both the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking any further passage of East Germans into West Berlin and erected
Bay of Pigs Invasion

The Eisenhower administration had created a plan to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime though an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained, anti-Castro Cuban exiles[195][196] led by CIA paramilitary officers.[197] Kennedy had campaigned on a hardline stance against Castro, and when presented with the plan that had been developed under the Eisenhower administration, he enthusiastically adopted it regardless of the risk of inflaming tensions with the Soviet Union.[198] Kennedy approved the final invasion plan on April 4, 1961.[199]
On April 15, 1961, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers left Nicaragua to bomb Cuban airfields. The bombers missed many of their targets, leaving most of Castro's air force intact.[200] On April 17, the 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exile invasion force, known as Brigade 2506, landed at beaches along the Bay of Pigs and immediately came under heavy fire.[201] The goal was to spark a widespread popular uprising against Castro, but no such uprising occurred.[202] No U.S. air support was provided.[203] The invading force was defeated within two days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces;[204] 114 were killed and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors.[205] After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for a ransom of $53 million worth of food and medicine.[206] The incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe that another invasion would take place.[207]
Biographer Richard Reeves said that Kennedy focused primarily on the political repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. When it proved unsuccessful, he was convinced that the plan was a setup to make him look bad.[208] He took responsibility for the failure, saying, "We got a big kick in the leg and we deserved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it."[209] Kennedy's approval ratings climbed afterwards, helped in part by the vocal support given to him by Nixon and Eisenhower.[210] He appointed Robert Kennedy to help lead a committee to examine the causes of the failure.[211] The Kennedy administration banned all Cuban imports and convinced the Organization of American States (OAS) to expel Cuba.[212]
Operation Mongoose
In late 1961, the White House formed the Special Group (Augmented), headed by Robert Kennedy and including Edward Lansdale, Secretary Robert McNamara, and others. The group's objective—to overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics—was never pursued.[213] In November 1961, he authorized Operation Mongoose.[214] In March 1962, Kennedy rejected Operation Northwoods, proposals for false flag attacks against American military and civilian targets,[215] and blaming them on the Cuban government to gain approval for a war against Cuba. However, the administration continued to plan for an invasion of Cuba in the summer of 1962.[214]
Cuban Missile Crisis

In the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Khrushchev increased economic and military assistance to Cuba.[216] The Soviet Union planned to allocate in Cuba 49 medium-range ballistic missiles, 32 intermediate-range ballistic missiles, 49 light Il-28 bombers and about 100 tactical nuclear weapons.[217] The Kennedy administration viewed the growing Cuba-Soviet alliance with alarm, fearing that it could eventually pose a threat to the U.S.[218] On October 14, 1962, CIA U-2 spy planes took photographs of the Soviets' construction of intermediate-range ballistic missile sites in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16; a consensus was reached that the missiles were offensive in nature and posed an immediate nuclear threat.[219]
Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the Soviet Union, but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons (positioned approximately 90 mi (140 km) away from the Florida coast).[220] The U.S. would also appear to the world as less committed to the defense of the Western Hemisphere. On a personal level, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after the Vienna summit.[221] To deal with the crisis, he formed an ad-hoc body of key advisers, later known as EXCOMM, that met secretly between October 16 and 28.[222]
More than a third of
The U.S. Navy would stop and inspect all Soviet ships arriving off Cuba, beginning October 24. Several Soviet ships approached the blockade line, but they stopped or reversed course.[226] The OAS gave unanimous support to the removal of the missiles. Kennedy exchanged two sets of letters with Khrushchev, to no avail.[227] UN Secretary General U Thant requested both parties to reverse their decisions and enter a cooling-off period. Khrushchev agreed, but Kennedy did not.[228] Kennedy managed to preserve restraint when a Soviet missile unauthorizedly downed a U.S. Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over Cuba, killing pilot Rudolf Anderson.[229]
At the president's direction, Robert Kennedy privately informed Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin that the U.S. would remove the Jupiter missiles from Turkey "within a short time after this crisis was over."[230] On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile sites, subject to UN inspections.[231] The U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey, which were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equipped with UGM-27 Polaris missiles.[232]
In the aftermath, a Moscow–Washington hotline was established to ensure clear communications between the leaders of the two countries.[233] This crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or after, but "the humanity" of Khrushchev and Kennedy prevailed.[234] The crisis improved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter.[235]
Latin America and communism

Believing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable,"[236][237] Kennedy sought to contain the perceived threat of communism in Latin America by establishing the Alliance for Progress, which sent aid to some countries and sought greater human rights standards in the region.[238] In response to Kennedy's plea, Congress voted for an initial grant of $500 million in May 1961.[239] The Alliance for Progress supported the construction of housing, schools, airports, hospitals, clinics and water-purification projects as well as the distribution of free textbooks to students.[240] However, the program did not meet many of its goals. Massive land reform was not achieved; populations more than kept pace with gains in health and welfare; and according to one study, only 2 percent of economic growth in 1960s Latin America directly benefited the poor.[241][242] U.S. presidents after Kennedy were less supportive of the program and by 1973, the permanent committee established to implement the Alliance was disbanded by the OAS.[240]
The Eisenhower administration, through the CIA, had begun formulating plans to assassinate Castro in Cuba and
Laos
After the election, Eisenhower emphasized to Kennedy that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority; Eisenhower considered Laos to be "the cork in the bottle" in regards to the regional threat.[245] In March 1961, Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a "free" Laos to a "neutral" Laos, indicating privately that Vietnam should be deemed America's tripwire for communism's spread in the area.[245] Though he was unwilling to commit U.S. forces to a major military intervention in Laos, Kennedy did approve CIA activities designed to defeat Communist insurgents through bombing raids and the recruitment of the Hmong people.[246]
Vietnam


During his presidency, Kennedy continued policies that provided political, economic, and military support to the
Though Kennedy provided support for South Vietnam throughout his tenure, Vietnam remained a secondary issue for the Kennedy administration until 1963.[252] On September 2, Kennedy declared in an interview with Walter Cronkite of CBS:
In the final analysis, it is their war. They are the ones who have to win it or lose it. We can help them, we can give them equipment, we can send our men out there as advisers, but they have to win it, the people of Vietnam, against the Communists... But I don't agree with those who say we should withdraw. That would be a great mistake... [The United States] made this effort to defend Europe. Now Europe is quite secure. We also have to participate—we may not like it—in the defense of Asia.[253][254]
Kennedy increasingly soured on the president of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, whose violent crackdown on Buddhist practices galvanized opposition to his leadership. In August 1963, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. replaced Frederick Nolting as the U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam. Days after his arrival in South Vietnam, Lodge reported that several South Vietnamese generals sought the assent of the U.S. government to their plan of removing Diem from power. The Kennedy administration was split regarding not just the removal of Diem, but also their assessment of the military situation and the proper U.S. role in the country. After the State Department sent a diplomatic cable to Lodge that ordered him to pressure Diem to remove military authority from his brother, Ngô Đình Nhu, or face potential withdrawal of U.S. support and removal from power,[255] Kennedy instructed Lodge to offer covert assistance to a coup d'état, excluding assassination.[256] On November 1, 1963, a junta of senior military officers executed the coup which led to the arrest and assassinations of Diem and Nhu on November 2.[257]
By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors;[258] more than one hundred Americans had been killed in action and no final policy decision was made.[259][260][261] In the aftermath of the aborted coup in September 1963, the Kennedy administration reevaluated its policies in South Vietnam. Kennedy rejected the full-scale deployment of ground soldiers but also the total withdrawal of U.S. forces.[262] Historians disagree on whether the U.S. military presence in Vietnam would have escalated had Kennedy survived and been re-elected in 1964.[263] Fueling the debate are statements made by Secretary of Defense McNamara in the 2003 documentary film The Fog of War that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election,[264] and comments made by Kennedy administration White House Counsel and speechwriter Ted Sorensen in a 2008 memoir suggesting that Kennedy was undecided about what policy direction to take.[265][261]
On October 11, 1963, Kennedy signed NSAM 263 ordering the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year following the third recommendation of the McNamara–Taylor mission report, which concluded that the training program for the South Vietnamese military had sufficiently progressed to justify the withdrawal.[266][267][268] However, NSAM 263 also approved the first recommendation of the report to continue providing support to South Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism and until the Viet Cong was suppressed, while the third recommendation suggested that even if the majority of the U.S. military objective was completed by the end of 1965 that continued presence of U.S. training personnel in more limited numbers could be necessary if the insurgency was not suppressed.[269][270][268]
West Berlin speech

In 1963, Germany was enduring a time of particular vulnerability due to Soviet aggression to the east as well as the impending retirement of West German Chancellor
To reinforce the U.S. alliance with West Germany, Kennedy travelled to West Germany and West Berlin in June 1963. On June 26, Kennedy toured West Berlin, culminating in a public speech at the city hall in front of hundreds of thousands of enthusiastic Berliners.[276] He reiterated the American commitment to Germany and criticized communism and was met with an ecstatic response from the massive audience.[277] Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: "Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy is not perfect. But we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us." The speech is known for its famous phrase "Ich bin ein Berliner" ("I am a Berliner").[278]
Middle East

Kennedy ended the arms embargo that the Truman and Eisenhower administrations had enforced on Israel in favor of increased security ties, becoming the founder of the U.S.-Israeli military alliance. Describing the protection of Israel as a moral and national commitment, he was the first to introduce the concept of a 'special relationship' between the U.S. and Israel.[279] In 1962, the Kennedy administration sold Israel a major weapon system, the Hawk antiaircraft missile. Historians differ as to whether Kennedy pursued security ties with Israel primarily to shore up support with Jewish-American voters, or because of his admiration of the Jewish state.[280]
In December 1961,
The anti-imperialist and anti-communist
Ireland

During his four-day visit to his ancestral home of Ireland beginning on June 26, 1963,
Kennedy was the first foreign leader to address the Houses of the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament.[287][289][290] Kennedy later told aides that the trip was the best four days of his life.[291]
American University speech
On June 10, 1963, Kennedy, at the high point of his rhetorical powers,[292] delivered the commencement address at American University. Also known as "A Strategy of Peace", not only did Kennedy outline a plan to curb nuclear arms, but he also "laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at a time when the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalating nuclear arms race."[293] Kennedy also announced that the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, and that the U.S. had postponed planned atmospheric tests.[294]
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
Troubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear proliferation, Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign.[295] In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but the Soviet Union began testing nuclear weapons that September. In response, the United States conducted tests five days later.[296] Shortly afterwards, new U.S. satellites began delivering images that made it clear that the Soviets were substantially behind the U.S. in the arms race.[297] Nevertheless, the greater nuclear strength of the U.S. was of little value as long as the Soviet Union perceived itself to be at parity.[298]
In July 1963, Kennedy sent W. Averell Harriman to Moscow to negotiate a treaty with the Soviets.[299] The introductory sessions included Khrushchev, who later delegated Soviet representation to Andrei Gromyko. It quickly became clear that a comprehensive test ban would not be implemented, due largely to the reluctance of the Soviets to allow inspections to verify compliance.[300]
Ultimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to a limited treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The U.S. Senate approved the treaty on September 23, 1963, and Kennedy signed it on October 7, 1963.[301] France was quick to declare that it was free to continue developing and testing its nuclear defenses.[302]
Domestic policy
New Frontier

Kennedy called his domestic proposals the "New Frontier".[303] However, Kennedy's small margin of victory in the 1960 election, his lack of deep connections to influential members of Congress, and his administration's focus on foreign policy hindered the passage of New Frontier policies.[304]
In 1961, Kennedy prioritized passing five bills: federal assistance for education, medical insurance for the elderly, housing legislation, federal aid to struggling areas, and an increase in the federal minimum wage.
In 1962, Kennedy won approval of the
Trade policy included both domestic and foreign policy. The 1962
Taxes
Walter Heller, who served as the chairman of the CEA, advocated for a Keynesian-style tax cut designed to help spur economic growth, and Kennedy adopted this policy.[314] The idea was that a tax cut would stimulate consumer demand, which in turn would lead to higher economic growth, lower unemployment, and increased federal revenues.[315] To the disappointment of liberals like John Kenneth Galbraith, Kennedy's embrace of the tax cut shifted his administration's focus away from the proposed old-age health insurance program and other domestic expenditures.[316] In January 1963, Kennedy proposed a tax cut that would reduce the top marginal tax rate from 91 to 65 percent, and lower the corporate tax rate from 52 to 47 percent. The predictions according to the Keynesian model indicated the cuts would decrease income taxes by about $10 billion and corporate taxes by about $3.5 billion. The plan included reforms designed to reduce the impact of itemized deductions, as well as provisions to help the elderly and handicapped. Republicans and many Southern Democrats opposed the bill, calling for simultaneous reductions in expenditures, but debate continued throughout 1963.[317] Three months after Kennedy died, Johnson pushed the plan through Congress. The Revenue Act of 1964 lowered the top individual rate to 70 percent, and the top corporate rate to 48 percent.[318]
Economy

Kennedy ended a period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to keep
The economy turned around and prospered during Kennedy's presidency. The GDP expanded by an average of 5.5% from early 1961 to late 1963,[321] while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment eased.[322] Industrial production rose by 15% and motor vehicle sales increased by 40%.[323] This sustained rate of growth in GDP and industry continued until around 1969.[321]
Kennedy was proud that his Labor Department helped keep wages steady in the steel industry, but was outraged in April 1962 when
Civil rights movement

Kennedy verbally supported
Kennedy believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would anger many Southern Whites and make it more difficult to pass civil rights laws in Congress, and he distanced himself from it.
On March 6, 1961, Kennedy signed Executive Order 10925, which required government contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin."[337] It established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity.[338]
In September 1962, James Meredith enrolled at the all-White University of Mississippi but was prevented from entering. In response, Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent 400 federal marshals.[339] The Ole Miss riot of 1962 left two dead and dozens injured, prompting Kennedy to send in 3,000 troops to quell the riot.[340] Meredith did finally enroll in class. Kennedy regretted not sending in troops earlier and he began to doubt whether the "evils of Reconstruction" he had been taught or believed were true.[332] On November 20, 1962, Kennedy signed Executive Order 11063, which prohibited racial discrimination in federally supported housing.[341]

On June 11, 1963, Kennedy intervened when Alabama Governor
His proposals became part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The day ended with the murder of an NAACP leader, Medgar Evers, in Mississippi.[344] As Kennedy had predicted, the day after his TV speech, and in reaction to it, House Majority leader Carl Albert called to advise him that his two-year signature effort in Congress to combat poverty in Appalachia had been defeated, primarily by the votes of Southern Democrats and Republicans.[345] When Arthur Schlesinger Jr. complimented Kennedy on his remarks, Kennedy bitterly replied, "Yes, and look at what happened to area development the very next day in the House." He then added, "But of course, I had to give that speech, and I'm glad that I did."[346] On June 16, The New York Times published an editorial which argued that while Kennedy had initially "moved too slowly and with little evidence of deep moral commitment" in regards to civil rights he "now demonstrate[d] a genuine sense of urgency about eradicating racial discrimination from our national life."[347]
A crowd of over 250,000, predominantly African Americans, gathered in Washington for the civil rights
The Department of Justice was assigned to coordinate the federal government's involvement in the March on Washington on August 28; several hundred thousand dollars to were channeled to the six sponsors of the March.[352] To ensure a peaceful demonstration, the organizers and the president personally edited speeches that were inflammatory and collaborated on all aspects related to times and venues. Thousands of troops were placed on standby. Kennedy watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. The March was considered a "triumph of managed protest," and not one arrest relating to the demonstration occurred. Afterwards, the March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with Kennedy and photos were taken. Kennedy felt that the March was a victory for him as well and bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill.[352]
Three weeks later on Sunday, September 15, a bomb exploded at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham; by the end of the day, four Black children had died in the explosion, and two others were shot to death in the aftermath.[353] Due to this resurgent violence, the civil rights legislation underwent some drastic amendments that critically endangered any prospects for passage of the bill, to the outrage of Kennedy. He called the congressional leaders to the White House and by the following day the original bill, without the additions, had enough votes to get it out of the House committee.[354] Gaining Republican support, Senator Everett Dirksen promised the legislation would be brought to a vote preventing a Senate filibuster.[355] On July 2, 1964, the guarantees Kennedy proposed in his June 1963 speech became federal law, when President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act.[355]
Status of women

During the 1960 presidential campaign, Kennedy endorsed the concept of
Crime
Under the leadership of the attorney general, the Kennedy administration shifted the focus of the Justice Department, the FBI, and the IRS to
On March 22, 1962, Kennedy signed into law a bill abolishing the mandatory death penalty for
Agriculture
Kennedy had relatively little interest in agricultural issues, but he sought to remedy the issue of overproduction, boost the income of farmers, and lower federal expenditures on agriculture. Under the direction of Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman, the administration sought to limit the production of farmers, but these proposals were generally defeated in Congress. To increase demand for domestic agricultural products and help the impoverished, Kennedy launched a pilot Food Stamp program and expanded the federal school lunch program.[364]
Native American relations
Construction of the
Space policy

In the aftermath of the Soviet launch of Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite, NASA proposed a crewed lunar landing by the early 1970s.[367] Funding for the program, known as the Apollo program, was far from certain as Eisenhower held an ambivalent attitude.[368] Early in his presidency, Kennedy was poised to dismantle the crewed space program, but he postponed any decision out of deference to Vice President Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of the program in the Senate.[369] With Jerome Wiesner, Johnson was given a major role in overseeing the administration's space policy, and at Johnson's recommendation Kennedy appointed James E. Webb to head NASA.[370]
In Kennedy's
In the aftermath of Gagarin's flight, as well as the failed Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy felt pressured to respond to the perceived erosion of American prestige. He asked Johnson to explore the feasibility of beating the Soviets to the Moon. Though he was concerned about the program's costs, Kennedy agreed to Johnson's recommendation that the U.S. commit to a crewed lunar landing as the major objective of the space program. In a May 25 speech to Congress, Kennedy declared,[373]
... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.[375] Full text

Though Gallup polling showed that many in the public were skeptical of the necessity of the Apollo program,
No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space. ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.[377] Full text
On November 21, 1962, in a cabinet meeting with Webb and other officials, Kennedy explained that the Moon shot was important for reasons of international prestige, and that the expense was justified.[378] On July 20, 1969, almost six years after Kennedy's death, Apollo 11 landed the first crewed spacecraft on the Moon.[379]
Judicial appointments
In 1962, Kennedy appointed justices
Assassination
Kennedy was assassinated in

Kennedy was taken to
President Johnson quickly issued an
Funeral
Kennedy's body was brought back to Washington. On November 23, six military pallbearers carried the flag-draped coffin into the East Room of the White House, where he lay in repose for 24 hours.[398][399] Then, the coffin was carried on a horse-drawn caisson to the Capitol to lie in state. Throughout the day and night, hundreds of thousands lined up to view the guarded casket,[400][401] with a quarter million passing through the rotunda during the 18 hours of lying in state.[400]
Kennedy's funeral service was held on November 25, at
Personal life, family, and reputation

The Kennedy family is one of the most established political families in the United States, having produced a president, three senators, three ambassadors, and multiple other representatives and politicians. While a congressman, Kennedy embarked on a seven-week trip to India, Japan, Vietnam, and Israel in 1951, at which point he became close with his then 25-year-old brother Robert, as well as his 27-year-old sister Patricia. Because they were several years apart in age, the brothers had previously seen little of each other. This 25,000-mile (40,000 km) trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends.[406] Robert would eventually serve as his brother's attorney general and closest presidential advisor;[406] he would later run for president in 1968 before his assassination, while another Kennedy brother, Ted, ran for president in 1980.[407]
Wife and children
Kennedy met his wife,
After a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956 (their daughter Arabella), their daughter
Popular image

Kennedy and his wife were younger than the presidents and first ladies who preceded them, and both were popular in the media culture in ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of photo spreads in popular magazines. Although Eisenhower had allowed presidential press conferences to be filmed for television, Kennedy was the first president to ask for them to be broadcast live and made good use of the medium.[419] In 1961, the Radio-Television News Directors Association presented Kennedy with its highest honor, the Paul White Award, in recognition of his open relationship with the media.[420]
The Kennedys invited a range of artists, writers and intellectuals to White House dinners, raising the profile of the arts in America. On the White House lawn, they established a swimming pool and tree house, while Caroline attended a preschool with 10 other children inside the home.[421][422]
Vaughn Meader's First Family comedy album, which parodied the president, the first lady, their family, and the administration, sold about four million copies.[423]
Health
Despite a privileged youth, Kennedy was plagued by childhood diseases, including

During his years at Choate, Kennedy was beset by health problems that culminated with his emergency hospitalization in 1934 at Yale New Haven Hospital, where doctors suspected leukemia.[425] While sick, he became a passionate reader and also a fatalist.[426] In June 1934, he was admitted to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota; the ultimate diagnosis was colitis.[425] After withdrawing from Princeton University, Kennedy was hospitalized for observation at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. He then spent the spring of 1936 working as a ranch hand outside Benson, Arizona under Jack Speiden.[427]
Years after Kennedy's death, it was revealed that in September 1947, when he was 30 and in his first term in Congress, he was diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis at
Kennedy suffered from chronic severe back pain, for which he had surgery. His condition may have had diplomatic repercussions, as he appears to have been taking a combination of drugs to treat back pain during the 1961
Into late 1961, disagreements existed among Kennedy's doctors concerning the balance of medication and exercise. Kennedy preferred the former because he was short on time and desired immediate relief.[298] The president's primary White House physician, George G. Burkley, set up gym equipment in the White House basement, where Kennedy did stretching exercises thrice weekly.[433] Details of these and other medical problems were not publicly disclosed during Kennedy's lifetime.[434] Burkley realized that treatments by Jacobson and Travell, including excessive use of steroids and amphetamines, were medically inappropriate, and took action to remove Kennedy from their care.[435]
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In 2002, Robert Dallek wrote an extensive history of Kennedy's health based on a collection of Kennedy-associated papers from 1955 to 1963, including X-rays and prescription records from Travell. According to Travell's records, during his presidential years Kennedy suffered from high fevers; stomach, colon, and prostate issues; abscesses; high cholesterol; and adrenal problems. Travell kept a "Medicine Administration Record", cataloging Kennedy's medications:
injected and ingested corticosteroids for his adrenal insufficiency; procaine shots and ultrasound treatments and hot packs for his back; Lomotil, Metamucil, paregoric, phenobarbital, testosterone, and trasentine to control his diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and weight loss; penicillin and other antibiotics for his urinary-tract infections and an abscess; and Tuinal to help him sleep.[425]
Affairs and friendships

Kennedy was single in the 1940s while having relationships with Danish journalist Inga Arvad[436] and actress Gene Tierney.[437] During his time as a senator, he had an affair with Gunilla von Post, who later wrote that the future president tried to end his marriage to be with her before having any children with his wife.[438] Kennedy was also reported to have had affairs with Marilyn Monroe,[439] Judith Campbell,[440] Mary Pinchot Meyer,[441] Marlene Dietrich,[30] White House intern Mimi Alford,[442] and his wife's press secretary, Pamela Turnure.[443] There have been several conspiracy theories surrounding the death of Monroe, alleging that Kennedy may have had a part in her death.[444]
The full extent of Kennedy's relationship with Monroe (who in 1962 famously sang "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" at Kennedy's birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden) is not known, though it has been reported that they spent a weekend together in March 1962 while he was staying at Bing Crosby's house.[445] Furthermore, people at the White House switchboard noted that Monroe had called Kennedy during 1962.[446] J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI director, received reports about Kennedy's indiscretions.[447] These included an alleged tryst with an East German spy, Ellen Rometsch. According to historian Michael Beschloss, in July 1963, Hoover reportedly informed Robert Kennedy about the affair with a woman "suspected as a Soviet intelligence agent, someone linked to East German intelligence." Robert reportedly took the matter sufficiently seriously to raise it with leading Democratic and Republican figures in Congress.[448][449] Former Secret Service agent Larry Newman recalled "morale problems" that the president's indiscretions engendered within the Secret Service.[450]
Kennedy inspired affection and loyalty from the members of his team and his supporters.[451] According to Reeves, this included "the logistics of Kennedy's liaisons ... [which] required secrecy and devotion rare in the annals of the energetic service demanded by successful politicians."[452] Kennedy believed that his friendly relationship with members of the press would help protect him from public revelations about his sex life.[453]
Sports

Kennedy was a fan of Major League Baseball's Boston Red Sox and the National Basketball Association's Boston Celtics.[454][455] Growing up on Cape Cod, Kennedy and his siblings developed a lifelong passion for sailing.[456] He also took up golf; playing regularly at the Hyannisport Club in Massachusetts and the Palm Beach Country Club in Florida.[454][457]
Religion
Kennedy was the first Catholic elected to the presidency.[458] During his childhood, he attended St. Aidan's Church in Brookline, Massachusetts, where he was baptized on June 19, 1917.[459]
Historical evaluations and legacy

Presidency
Historians and political scientists tend to
Kennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King Jr. and
Camelot

The term "Camelot" is often used to describe his presidency, reflecting both the mythic grandeur accorded Kennedy in death and powerful nostalgia for that era of American history.
Memorials and eponyms
Examples of the extensive list include:
- Idlewild Airport in Queens, New York City, renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24, 1963
- NASA Launch Operations Center in John F. Kennedy Space Centeron November 29, 1963.
- USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67), U.S. Navy aircraft carrier ordered in April 1964, launched May 1967, decommissioned August 2007; nicknamed "Big John"
- Kennedy half dollar, first minted in 1964
- John F. Kennedy School of Government, part of Harvard University, renamed in 1966
- John F. Kennedy Federal Building in the Government Center section of Boston, opened in 1966
- John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial, opened in 1970 in Dallas
- National cultural center was named John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in 1964, opened in 1971 in Washington, D.C.
- John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum on Columbia Point in Boston; opened in 1979
- Statue of John F. Kennedy by Isabel McIlvain on the grounds of the Massachusetts State House in Boston; dedicated on May 29, 1990.
Works
Books
- Kennedy, John F. (1940). ISBN 978-1-44-084990-9.
- Kennedy, John F. (1956). ISBN 978-0-06-095544-1.
- Kennedy, John F. (1958). ISBN 978-0-06-144754-9.
Select speeches
See also
- Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy
- Electoral history of John F. Kennedy
- History of the United States (1945–1964)
- Kennedy Doctrine
- Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences urban legend
- List of presidents of the United States
- List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
- List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots
- Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy
- Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
- "Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy" VP debate retort by Senator Lloyd Bentsen, 1988
Notes
- ^ Theodore Roosevelt was nine months younger when he first rose to the office from the vice presidency on September 14, 1901, in the wake of his predecessor's assassination, but he was not elected to the office until 1904, when he was 46.[2]
- ^ After the war, Kennedy contacted the captain of the Amagiri, Kohei Hanami, and formed a friendship with him. Hanami later supported Kennedy's election campaign.[50]
References
Citations
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- ^ Dallek 2003, p. 20.
- ^ "Patrick Joseph Kennedy Personal Papers". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Archived from the original on January 29, 2024. Retrieved January 29, 2024.
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- ^ Prince, DeAntae (January 20, 2017). "Satch Sanders Q&A: The NBA And the White House". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on March 19, 2024. Retrieved March 19, 2024.
- ^ "Summertime Sailing". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. February 28, 2022. Archived from the original on March 19, 2024. Retrieved March 19, 2024.
- ^ Buccellato, Robert (2021). Images of America: Presidential Vacations in Florida. Arcadia Publishing. p. 98.
- ^ "Life of John F. Kennedy". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. April 26, 2023. Archived from the original on March 21, 2024. Retrieved March 21, 2024.
- ^ "Saint Aidan's Church". National Park Service. Archived from the original on March 21, 2024. Retrieved March 20, 2024.
- ^ Giglio 2006, pp. 308–309.
- Gallup Organization. Retrieved December 4, 2024.
- ^ Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin (February 16, 2015). "New ranking of U.S. presidents puts Lincoln at No. 1, Obama at 18; Kennedy judged most overrated". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 19, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2017.
- ^ "Presidential Historians Survey 2017". C-SPAN. 2017. Archived from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2017.
- ^ Jones, Jeffrey M. (July 17, 2023). "Retrospective Approval of JFK Rises to 90%; Trump at 46%". Gallup, Inc. Archived from the original on January 7, 2024. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
- ^ "John F. Kennedy: Impact and Legacy". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. October 4, 2016. Archived from the original on March 18, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2017.
- ^ Brinkley, Alan. "The Legacy of John F. Kennedy". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on August 29, 2016. Retrieved September 1, 2016.
- ^ Gillman, Todd J. (November 16, 2013). "JFK's legacy: Kennedy fell short of greatness, yet inspired a generation". Dallas Morning News. Retrieved April 28, 2017.[permanent dead link ]
- ^ The Gallup Poll 1999. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc. 1999. pp. 248–249.
- ^ "Greatest of the Century". Gallup/CNN/USA Today Poll. December 20–21, 1999. Archived from the original on January 5, 2007. Retrieved January 5, 2007.
- ^ "Recipients". The Laetare Medal. University of Notre Dame. Archived from the original on February 4, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
- ISBN 1-56802-128-3. Retrieved September 9, 2019.
- ^ Linda Czuba Brigance, "For One Brief Shining Moment: Choosing to Remember Camelot." Studies in Popular Culture 25.3 (2003): 1–12 online Archived September 6, 2023, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, Historical Dictionary of the Kennedy-Johnson Era (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015) pp. 75–76.
- ^ The Personal Papers of Theodore H. White (1915–1986): Series 11. Camelot Documents, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum quotation:
The 1963 LIFE article represented the first use of the term "Camelot" in print and is attributed with having played a major role in establishing and fixing this image of the Kennedy Administration and period in the popular mind.
- ^ An Epilogue, in LIFE, December 6, 1963, pp. 158–159
- ^ Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, Historical Dictionary of the Kennedy–Johnson Era (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015) pp. 75–76.
- ^ Jon Goodman, et al., The Kennedy Mystique: Creating Camelot (National Geographic Books, 2006).
Works cited
- ISBN 978-0-7922-6876-5.
- Barnes, John (2007). John F. Kennedy on Leadership. New York: AMACOM. ISBN 978-0-8144-7455-6.
- Bilharz, Joy Ann (2002) [1998]. The Allegany Senecas and Kinzua Dam: Forced Relocation Through Two Generations. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1282-4.
- Blight, James G.; Lang, Janet M. (2005). The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-4221-1.
- Brauer, Carl M. (2002). "John F. Kennedy". In Graff, Henry (ed.). The Presidents: A Reference History (2nd ed.). Macmillan Library Reference USA. pp. 481–498. ISBN 0-684-80551-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8050-8349-1.
- Bryant, Nick (Autumn 2006a). "Black Man Who Was Crazy Enough to Apply to Ole Miss". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (53): 31, 60–71. from the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved March 31, 2024.
- Bryant, Nick (2006b). The Bystander: John F. Kennedy and the Struggle for Black Equality. Basic Books.
- Cohen, Andrew (2016) [2014]. Two Days in June: John F. Kennedy and the 48 Hours That Changed History (illustrated, reprint ed.). Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2389-7. Archivedfrom the original on March 31, 2024. Retrieved July 24, 2023.
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- Doyle, William (2015). PT-109: An American Epic of War, Survival, and the Destiny of John F. Kennedy. New York: Harper-Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-234658-2.
- Dudley, Robert L.; Shiraev, Eric (2008). Counting Every Vote: The Most Contentious Elections in American History. Dulles, VA: Potomac Books. ISBN 978-1-59797-224-6.
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- Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7.
- Giglio, James N. (2006). The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (2nd ed.). University Press of Kansas.
- Gleijeses, Piero (February 1995). "Ships in the Night: The CIA, the White House and the Bay of Pigs". Journal of Latin American Studies. 27 (1): 1–42. S2CID 146390097.
- Goduti, Philip A. Jr. (2012). Robert F. Kennedy and the Shaping of Civil Rights, 1960–1964. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-4943-9.
- Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0.
- Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edgar: The Historic Face-Off Between the Kennedys and J. Edgar Hoover That Transformed America. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-7867-1982-2.
- ISBN 978-0-399-15729-5.
- Kenney, Charles (2000). John F. Kennedy: The Presidential Portfolio. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-891620-36-2.
- Leaming, Barbara (2006). Jack Kennedy: The Education of a Statesman. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393051-61-2.
- ISBN 978-1-4516-3508-9.
- O'Brien, Michael (2005). John F. Kennedy: A Biography. New York: Thomas Dunne. ISBN 978-0-312-28129-8.
- Osborne, Robert (2006). Leading Ladies: The 50 Most Unforgettable Actresses of the Studio Era. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-5248-7.
- Parmet, Herbert S. (1983). JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy. New York: Dial Press. ISBN 978-0-140-07054-5.
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- ISBN 978-0-618-21927-8.
- OCLC 2746832.
- Walton, Hanes Jr.; Smith, Robert C. (2000). American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom. New York: Addison, Wesley, Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-07038-8.
- The Torch is Passed: The Associated Press Story of the Death of a President. New York: Associated Press. 1963. ISBN 978-0861015689.
- NBC News (1966). There Was a President. New York: Random House.
- White, Theodore Harold (1965). The Making of the President, 1964. New York: Atheneum.
- The New York Times (2003). Semple, Robert B. Jr. (ed.). Four days in November. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Further reading
External links
- John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
- John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- John F. Kennedy: A Resource Guide – the Library of Congress
- Extensive Essays on JFK with shorter essays on his cabinet and First Lady – Miller Center of Public Affairs
- Kennedy Administration from United States Government Printing Office
- Works by or about John F. Kennedy at the Internet Archive
- Works by John F. Kennedy at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by John F. Kennedy at Project Gutenberg
- Kennedy Convocation Collection at the Amherst College Archives & Special Collections, documenting one of his last visits before his assassination
- United States Congress. "John F. Kennedy (id: K000107)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.