John F. Kennedy 1960 presidential campaign
John F. Kennedy for President 1960 | |
---|---|
Campaign | 1960 U.S. presidential election (Democratic primaries) |
Candidate | John F. Kennedy U.S. Senator from Massachusetts (1953–1960) Lyndon B. Johnson U.S. Senator from Texas (1949–1961) |
Affiliation | Democratic Party |
Status | Announced: January 2, 1960 Official nominee: July 15, 1960 Won election: November 8, 1960 Inaugurated: January 20, 1961 |
Headquarters | Boston, Massachusetts[1][2] |
Slogan | A Time For Greatness We Can Do Better Leadership for the 60s |
The 1960 presidential campaign of John F. Kennedy, then junior
Kennedy was nominated by the Democratic Party at the
Background
During the 1956 presidential election, Kennedy was speculated as a possible vice presidential nominee. Before the vice presidential nomination ballot multiple Massachusetts politicians, including former Governor Paul A. Dever, gave their support to Kennedy and pushed for other state delegations to support him.[3] On the first ballot, Kennedy came in second place to Senator Estes Kefauver, but came ahead of him on the second ballot due to support from Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr., another Catholic, and Southerners who opposed Kefauver's anti-segregation beliefs.[4] However, on the third ballot, Kefauver won with the support of Senator Albert Gore Sr., but would lose in the general election alongside Adlai Stevenson II. Kennedy, however, remained untarnished by Stevenson's defeat, and the exposure he received at the convention made him a serious contender for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1960.[5] Kennedy later stated that had he won the vice presidential nomination his political career would have ended due to the Republican landslide in the general election.[6]
In 1957, Kennedy won the
In 1958, Kennedy set out to win re-election to the U.S. Senate by a wide margin, believing this would improve his visibility in the Democratic Party and nationally. He defeated his Republican opponent with 73.6 percent of the vote, boosting his presidential profile for 1960.[11] Kennedy's margin of victory was 874,608 votes—the largest ever in Massachusetts politics and the greatest of any senatorial candidate that year.[12] In the aftermath of his re-election, Kennedy began preparing to run for president by traveling throughout the U.S., establishing contacts with potential Democratic delegates, with the aim of building his candidacy for 1960.[13]
On October 24, 1958,
On December 17, 1959, a letter from Kennedy's staff that was to be sent to "active and influential Democrats" was leaked stating that he would announce his presidential campaign on January 2, 1960.[16]
Announcement
On January 2, 1960, Kennedy formally announced that he would seek the Democratic presidential nomination at the
Kennedy established his campaign headquarters at 260 Tremont Street, a 12-story commercial building in Boston.[20][21] He named his younger brother, Robert F. Kennedy, as campaign manager.[22]
Issues
Civil rights
On the issue of civil rights, Kennedy had scanted firsthand experience of the severity of southern life. He circumvented the national debate over equal rights by approaching the subject as a local issue. Robert Kennedy later reflected, "We weren't thinking of the Negroes of Mississippi or Alabama—what should be done for them. We were thinking of what needed to be done in Massachusetts."[23] According to author Carl M. Brauer, Kennedy's goal was to neutralize the civil rights issue and avoid splitting the party before the 1960 election.[24]
A crucial issue in the 1960 campaign, Kennedy faced the challenge of promoting policies that white southern Democrats supported while, at the same time, courting black voters away from the Republican Party. Just a few weeks before the election, Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested in Atlanta for a sit-in and sentenced to four months hard labor. Though politically risky, Kennedy phoned Coretta Scott King, to express his concern, while a call from Robert Kennedy to the judge helped secure King's safe release. The Kennedy brothers' personal intervention led to a public endorsement by Martin Luther King Sr., who had supported Nixon earlier in the campaign. The publicizing of this endorsement, combined with other campaign efforts, contributed to increased support among black voters for Kennedy, which was pivotal in the swing states of Illinois, Michigan and South Carolina that JFK carried.[25][26] In 1956, Adlai Stevenson won 61 percent of the African American vote; in 1960, Kennedy received 68 percent.[27]
Cold War
The issue that dominated the election was the rising
Kennedy took advantage of increased Cold War tension by emphasizing a perceived "missile gap" between the United States and Soviet Union. He argued that under the Republicans, the nation had fallen behind the Soviet Union, both militarily and economically, and that, as president, he would "get America moving again."[28][25] He proposed a bi-partisan congressional investigation about the possibility that the Soviet Union was ahead of the United States in developing missiles.[29] He also noted in an October 18 speech that several senior U.S. military officers had long criticized the Eisenhower administration's defense spending policies.[25]
Religion
A key concern in Kennedy's campaign was the widespread skepticism among Protestants about his
Campaign
March–June: Primaries
Kennedy had won elections in Massachusetts by relying on his family's wealth and connections, bypassing the local Democratic organization. Winning the nomination, however, required the support of substantial blocs of convention delegates from the large states, often controlled by a single person (i.e., Governor David L. Lawrence of Pennsylvania and Mayor Richard J. Daley of Chicago). Historian James Hilty writes that the Kennedy campaign strategy was to win primaries to demonstrate John Kennedy's electability to the party bosses. There were only sixteen primaries in 1960, and most of them were in smaller states with relatively few delegates at stake. So they handpicked states where they thought they could win impressively, while working behind the scenes building support elsewhere.[36]
Kennedy won the New Hampshire primary on March 8 without facing any opposition.[37] After the results came in, Kennedy expressed enthusiasm while in Madison: "I'm very happy about it; we did better than I thought we would."[38] Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley promised to deliver Kennedy the support of Cook County's delegates, so long as Kennedy won competitive primaries in other states.[39]
The first sharply contested popular primary was in Wisconsin, where Kennedy faced Senator
On May 4, Humphrey and Kennedy took part in a televised one-on-one debate at WCHS-TV in Charleston, ahead of the state's primary.[43] Kennedy outperformed Humphrey and, in the days following, Kennedy made substantial gains over Humphrey in the polls.[44][45] Humphrey's campaign was low on funds, and could not compete for advertising and other "get-out-the-vote" drives with Kennedy's well-financed and well-organized campaign.[46] On May 10, Kennedy defeated Humphrey in the West Virginia primary with over 60 percent of the vote, and Humphrey announced his withdrawal from the race that night.[47]
July: Democratic National Convention
Kennedy arrived at the
Kennedy managed to win just enough delegates for a first-ballot nomination, despite last minute "Stop Kennedy" movements led by Johnson and others.[54] He did not reach the 761 votes required for the nomination until the final state in the roll call, Wyoming.[25] At the conclusion of the first ballot, Kennedy had 806 votes to 409 for Johnson and 79.5 for Stevenson. Favorite sons and minor candidates split the remaining 142 votes. Kennedy received support from 3% of the Southern delegates, but was supported by 68% of the delegates outside the South.[47]
Kennedy was the first U.S. senator since
In accepting the presidential nomination, Kennedy gave his well-known "New Frontier" speech, saying, "For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier. ... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them."[67] Kennedy hoped to pull together key elements of the Roosevelt coalition of the 1930s—urban communities of color, ethnicity-based voting blocs, and organized labor. He also hoped to win back conservative Catholics who had deserted the Democrats to vote for Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956, and to hold his own in the South.[25]
September–October: Debates
The Kennedy and Nixon campaigns agreed to a series of
Kennedy had met the day before the first debate with the producer to discuss the design of the set and the placement of the cameras. Nixon, just out of the hospital after a painful knee injury, did not take advantage of this opportunity. Kennedy wore a blue suit and shirt to cut down on glare and appeared sharply focused against the gray studio background. Nixon wore a light-colored suit that blended into the gray background; in combination with the harsh studio lighting that left Nixon perspiring, he offered a less-than commanding presence. By contrast, Kennedy appeared relaxed, tanned, and telegenic.[25][74]
It is often claimed that people who watched the debate on television overwhelmingly believed Kennedy had won, while radio listeners (a smaller audience) thought Nixon had ended up defeating him.[69][75][76] However, that has been disputed.[77] No such comparative polls exist, however, and the market research on which those conclusions rest incorporated too few radio listeners to be statistically valid.[74] Only one poll split TV and radio voters like this and the methodology of the pollsters was poor, failing to account for pre-debate political or religious biases and only interviewing 178 radio listeners who believed the debate had been won by either candidate.[78] The location of the polling is also unknown, even though Nixon would have been more popular pre-debate anyway in Protestant, rural areas with less access to television. 1960 was a close race and there is no polling available consistent with the idea that Nixon lost or Kennedy gained support as a result of the debate.[78] Researchers David Vancil and Sue Pendell point out that Nixon did not win the debate by strength of argument either; Democratic figures were satisfied with Kennedy's debate performance and even many Southern Democrats who had been apathetic or hostile towards Kennedy were impressed, but Nixon's performance alarmed Republican figures who thought that his defensiveness and me-tooism (repeatedly emphasising his agreement with Kennedy) realised their worst fears and was a surprisingly poor performance from him.[79] Nonetheless, Gallup polls in October showed Kennedy moving into a slight but consistent lead over Nixon (49% to 46%) after the candidates were in a statistical tie for most of August and September.[80] Pollster Elmo Roper concluded that the debates raised interest, boosted turnout, and gave Kennedy an extra two million votes, mostly as a result of the first debate.[81] The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in politics.[82]
November: General election
On November 1, Kennedy started a seventeen state campaign drive to visit California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Maine, and Massachusetts while Nixon was focused on completing his promise to campaign in all fifty states that he made at the Republican National Convention.[83] Larry Sabato and other political commentators would later criticize Nixon's decision to campaign in all fifty states as one of the reasons for his defeat as it prevented him from focusing on important swing states.
Allan Shivers, the former Democratic Governor of Texas who supported Eisenhower in the 1952 and 1956 presidential elections, criticized Kennedy for accepting the endorsement of the Liberal Party of New York, that the Democratic platform was more restrictive on farmers than communist countries, and that Nixon would win Texas due to his leadership experience at an event sponsored by the Democrats for Nixon.[84][85]
Theodore H. White wrote that Kennedy's campaign was focused on winning New York, Pennsylvania, California, Michigan, Texas, Illinois, Ohio, New Jersey, and Massachusetts as those states held 237 of the 269 electoral votes required to win the election. The remainder would come from southern, New England, or midwestern states.[86]
Results
On November 8, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote, by most accounts, Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the
Before midnight, The New York Times had gone to press with the headline, "Kennedy Elected President". As the election again became too close to call, Times managing editor Turner Catledge hoped that, as he recalled in his memoirs, "a certain Midwestern mayor would steal enough votes to pull Kennedy through", thus allowing the Times to avoid the embarrassment of announcing the wrong winner, as the Chicago Tribune had memorably done twelve years earlier.[90] NBC News didn't call the race until 7 a.m. the following morning.[91]
In his victory speech at the Hyannis Armory, Kennedy declared: "To all Americans, I say that the next four years are going to be difficult and challenging years for us all; that a supreme national effort will be needed to move this country safely through the 1960s. I ask your help, and I can assure you that every degree of my spirit that I possess will be devoted to the long-range interest of the United States and to the cause of freedom around the world."[92]
Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president,[93] and, at age 43, the youngest person elected to the office.[94][b] He was also the first Roman Catholic elected to the presidency.[96]
Analysis
The closeness of the 1960 presidential election can be explained by a number of factors.
The NES survey reported that in the South, Kennedy received the support of 52% of white voters and a majority of black voters. The highest amount of Democratic defection in the South was among Protestants who attended church regularly.[103]
Controversies
Illinois
Ben Adamowski, a Republican who lost reelection as Cook County State's Attorney to Democratic nominee Daniel P. Ward, requested a recount of the state's attorney race. Republicans sought to use this recount, as they could not order a recount of the presidential results, to prove that fraud had been committed in the presidential election. Sidney Holzman, the chair of the Board of Election Commissioners, stated that only the three BEC members could handle the ballots and would only recount the ballots for the state's attorney election. Judge Thaddeus Adesko ruled that twenty-five teams of counters had to be used and that the other elections would be included in the recount.[104]
The recount was finished on December 9, and showed that in six towns around Chicago mistakes of ten votes or more in favor of Kennedy occurred in 3.1% of the precincts, those in favor of Nixon occurred in 2.6%, and those in favor of third-parties occurred in 4.8%. 11% of the precincts in Chicago had errors of ten votes of more in Kennedy's favor and 8.6% in Nixon's favor. Kennedy's vote was overcounted in 38% of Chicago's precincts while Nixon's vote was overcounted in 40%. Nixon's total was increased by 926 votes.[105]
Hawaii
On November 8, the final unofficial vote total showed Kennedy winning Hawaii by 102 votes with 92,193 votes against Nixon's 92,091 votes.[106] However, Nixon was declared the winner after more absentee ballots came in increasing his margin to 141 on November 17. On December 2, a recount of 37 precincts was ordered by Circuit Court Judge Ronald B. Jamieson and later ordered more precincts to be recounted. On December 16, Kennedy overtook Nixon in the popular vote and on December 27, Jamieson ruled that Kennedy had won by 115 votes.[107]
However, Governor William F. Quinn had signed the certificate giving Hawaii's three electoral votes to the Republicans, but he later signed another certificate after the recount showed Kennedy winning. When Congress convened on January 3, 1961, Nixon, as president of the Senate had to preside over a joint session to certify the presidential election, certified Kennedy as the winner of Hawaii's electoral votes.[108][109]
Gallery
-
Kennedy's campaign button
-
1960 presidential campaign poster
-
Kennedy's 1960 campaign song "High Hopes" was performed by Frank Sinatra
-
A television advertisement from the 1960 campaign
-
1960 presidential campaign postcard
Endorsements
- Organizations
- AFL–CIO[15]
- Americans for Democratic Action, liberal American political organization advocating progressive policies[15]
- Liberal Party of New York[110]
- Newspapers
- Chattanooga Times[101]
- The Atlanta Constitution[111]
- The Atlanta Journal[111]
- Opelika Daily News, daily newspaper in Alabama[112]
- The New York Times[101]
- Congress
- Stephen M. Young, Senator from Ohio (1959–1971)[113]
- Governors
- Pat Brown, 32nd Governor of California (1959–1967)[15]
- Michael DiSalle, 60th Governor of Ohio (1959–1963)[15]
- Foster Furcolo, 60th Governor of Massachusetts (1957–1961)[114]
- John Malcolm Patterson, 44th Governor of Alabama (1959–1963)[15]
- Abraham Ribicoff, 80th Governor of Connecticut (1955–1961)[115]
- G. Mennen Williams, 41st Governor of Michigan (1949–1961)[116]
- State legislators
- Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives (1955–1956; 1959–1962)[117]
- Municipal officials
- Bernard L. Boutin, Mayor of Laconia (1955–1959)[118]
- Notable individuals
- Brendan Behan, poet and novelist[15]
- Walter Reuther, 4th President of the United Auto Workers (1946–1970)[119]
- Harry S. Truman (for the general election), 33rd President of the United States[120]
See also
- Robert F. Kennedy 1968 presidential campaign
- Ted Kennedy 1980 presidential campaign
- Robert F. Kennedy Jr. 2024 presidential campaign
Notes
- Robert Meyner), Mississippi (Carroll Gartin), and Hawaii.
- ^ Theodore Roosevelt was nine months younger when he first assumed the presidency on September 14, 1901, but he was not elected to the office until 1904, when he was 46.[95]
References
- ^ Acitelli, Tom. "John F. Kennedy in the Boston area, mapped". Curbed Boston.
- ^ Lantos, James. "Famous Bostonians: John F. Kennedy". Boston Auto Tour.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917 – 1963. p. 208.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917 – 1963. p. 210.
- ^ Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917 – 1963. p. 221.
- ^ ""JFK's Early Campaign" 1957". The Pop History Dig.
- ^ Brinkley, Alan (2012). John F. Kennedy: The American Presidents Series: The 35th President, 1961–1963. p. 33.
- ^ ""JFK's Early Campaign" 1958". The Pop History Dig.
- Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ ""JFK's Early Campaign" 1958". The Pop History Dig.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b c d e f g "1960 Election Chronology". Archived from the original on March 3, 2020.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ Acitelli, Tom. "John F. Kennedy in the Boston area, mapped". Curbed Boston.
- ^ Lantos, James. "Famous Bostonians: John F. Kennedy". Boston Auto Tour.
- ^ "Robert F. Kennedy". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum.
- ^ Bryant, Nick (2006). The Bystander: John F. Kennedy and the Struggle for Black Equality. Basic Books. pp. 23–24.
- ^ Brauer, Carl M. (1977). John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction. p. 11.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Campaign of 1960". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "The Kennedys and Civil Rights". PBS American Experience.
- ^ Chandler, Stacey Flores. "Herbert Tucker's Black Voter Outreach in JFK's Campaigns". National Archives.
- ^ Updegrove, Mark K. (2022). Incomparable Grace: JFK in the Presidency. pp. 16, 141.
- ^ Hal, Gulliver (November 23, 1963). "A Friendly Georgia Greeted Kennedy During His 5 Visits". The Atlanta Constitution.
- ^ a b c "The Election of 1960". U.S. History: From Pre-Columbian to the New Millennium.
- ISBN 9780199743636.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ Kennedy, John F. (June 18, 2002). "Address to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association". American Rhetoric. Retrieved September 17, 2007.
- ^ Casey, Shaun A. (2009). The Making of a Catholic President: Kennedy vs. Nixon 1960. New York City: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Lacroix, Patrick (2021). John F. Kennedy and the Politics of Faith. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. pp. 21–44.
- ^ Hilty, James (2000). Robert Kennedy: Brother Protector. Temple University Press. pp. 135–136.
- ISBN 978-0312357450.
- ^ Fulton, William (March 10, 1960). "Many Factors Aid Kennedy's N.H. Triumph". Chicago Tribune.
- ^ Oliphant, Thomas; Wilkie, Curtis (2017). The Road to Camelot: Inside JFK's Five-Year Campaign. Simon & Schuster.
- ISBN 978-0791461693.
- ISBN 0-618-21928-5.
- ^ "Press Wisconsin Campaign; Sen. Kennedy, Humphrey In Final Drive". Chicago Tribune. April 3, 1960.
- . Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- The Los Angeles Times. New York Times News Service. p. 2. Retrieved May 13, 2022.
- ^ Lawrence, W. H. (May 6, 1960). "West Virginia Poll Finds Kennedy Gain". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved May 13, 2022.
- ^ Savage, p. 54.
- ^ a b Black & Black 1992, p. 104.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ Oliphant, Thomas; Wilkie, Curtis (2017). The Road to Camelot: Inside JFK's Five-Year Campaign. Simon & Schuster. p. 180
- ^ Oliphant, Thomas; Wilkie, Curtis (2017). The Road to Camelot: Inside JFK's Five-Year Campaign. Simon & Schuster. p. 220
- ^ a b "The 1960 Democratic Presidential Race". PBS American Experience.
- ^ "Response to Former President Harry S. Truman's Remarks on Kennedy's Candidacy". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum.
- ^ Geoffrey Perrett, Jack: A Life Like No Other, New York: Random House, 2002, pp. 253–254
- ^ Caro, Robert (2012). The Passage of Power: The Years of Lyndon Johnson. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 103.
- ^ Gallup, George (July 10, 1960). "Kennedy Wins in Final Democratic Gallup Poll". The Los Angeles Times.
- ^ "Democratic National Political Conventions 1832–2008" (PDF). Library of Congress. 2008. pp. 19–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2009.
- ^ Shesol, Jeff (1998). Mutual Contempt: Lyndon Johnson, Robert Kennedy, and the Feud that Defined a Decade. W. W. Norton. pp. 59, 136.
- ISBN 978-0-375-71325-5.
- ISBN 978-0-9982575-3-2.
- ^ Cosgrave, Ben (May 24, 2014). "Head to Head: JFK and RFK, Los Angeles, July 1960". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on November 14, 2014. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- ^ Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., Robert Kennedy and His Times (1978), pp. 206–211.
- The Passage of Power, pp. 121–135. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 978-0-679-40507-8
- The Passage of Power, pp. 118–127. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 978-0-679-40507-8
- John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Retrieved August 2, 2016.
- ^ a b "United States presidential election of 1960". Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ The Museum of Broadcast Communications (MBC). Archived from the originalon August 21, 2010. Retrieved October 8, 2010.
- – via Oxford Academic.
- ^ Reston, James (October 8, 1960). "The Second Debate; Vice President Apparently Came Out Ahead in a More Informative Show". The New York Times. p. 10. Retrieved May 13, 2022.
- ^ Wicker, Tom (October 15, 1960). "G.O.P. Ledaers Say Kennedy 'Cribbed'". The New York Times. p. 12. Retrieved May 13, 2022.
- ^ "Kennedy-Nixon Debates Viewed as Draw in 23 Major Cities". The New York Times. October 23, 1960. p. 70. Retrieved May 13, 2022.
- ^ a b Selverstone, Marc J. "The Campaign and Election of 1960". University of Virginia: Miller Center.
- ^ "Nixon". American Experience. Season 3. Episode 2. October 15, 1990. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved June 15, 2022.
- ^ "JFK (Part 1)". American Experience. Season 25. Episode 7. November 11, 2013. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
- ^ Campbell, W. Joseph (September 24, 2016), "Debate myth emerges anew", Media Myth Alert.
- ^ S2CID 151390817.
- .
- ^ "Gallup Presidential Election Trial-Heat Trends, 1936–2008". gallup.com. Gallup, Inc. September 24, 2008. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
- ^ White, Theodore H. (1961). The Making of the President, 1960. p. 294.
- ^ Edward Smith, Dr. Jean (March 1967). "Kennedy and Defense The formative years". Air University Review. Archived from the original on December 12, 2008. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ Black & Black 1992, p. 191-192.
- ^ Dudley & Shiraev 2008, p. 83.
- ^ Dudley, Robert L.; Shiraev, Eric (2008). Counting Every Vote: The Most Contentious Elections in American History. Dulles, VA: Potomac Books. p. 83
- Salon. November 10, 2000. Retrieved May 12, 2016.
- ^ "Another Race To the Finish". The Washington Post. November 17, 2000. Retrieved May 12, 2016.
- ^ Bomboy, Scott. "The drama behind President Kennedy's 1960 election win". National Constitution Center.
- ^ "Kennedy Wins 1960 Presidential Election - 1960 Year In Review - Audio - UPI.com". UPI. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
- ^ Carroll, Wallace (January 21, 1961). "A Time of Change Facing Kennedy; Themes of Inaugural Note Future of Nation Under Challenge of New Era". The New York Times. p. 9.
- ^ Reeves 1993, p. 21.
- ISBN 978-1-107-66316-9.
- ^ "FAQ". The Pulitzer Prizes. Columbia University. Archived from the original on August 1, 2016. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
- ^ Rorabaugh, W.J. (2009). The Real Making of the President: Kennedy, Nixon, and the 1960 Election. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1887-3.
- S2CID 45404782.
- ^ Casey, Shaun A. (2009). The Making of a Catholic President: Kennedy vs. Nixon 1960. New York City: Oxford University Press
- ^ Gellman, Irwin F. (2021). Campaign of the Century: Kennedy, Nixon, and the Election of 1960. p. 247.
- ^ Newspapers.com.
- ^ Graham, Katharine (1997). Personal History. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 269.
- ^ Black & Black 1992, p. 198.
- ^ Kallina 1985, p. 114–115.
- ^ Kallina 1985, p. 115–116.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ "How Kennedy Won Hawaii". www.leinsdorf.com.
- ^ Burlingame, Burl. "Hawaii was the 'Florida' of 1960 election." Honolulu Star-Bulletin. 2000-11-18. Retrieved 2016-04-13.
- ^ Stern, Michael. "What the 1960 Hawaii Presidential Election Meant for Bush v. Gore." Point of Order. 2016-01-04. Retrieved 2016-04-13.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- Newspapers.com.
- ISBN 9780671456542.
Works cited
- ISBN 0674941306.
- Dudley, Robert L.; Shiraev, Eric (2008). Counting Every Vote: The Most Contentious Elections in American History. Dulles, VA: Potomac Books. ISBN 978-1-59797-224-6.
- Kallina, Edmund (1985). "Was the 1960 Presidential Election Stolen? The Case of Illinois". JSTOR 27550168.
- ISBN 978-0-671-64879-4.