John Knox
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John Knox (c. 1514 – 24 November 1572) was a Scottish
Born in Giffordgate, a street in Haddington, East Lothian, Knox is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews and worked as a notary-priest. Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish Church. He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal David Beaton in 1546 and the intervention of the regent Mary of Guise. He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549.
While in exile, Knox was licensed to work in the
On his return to Scotland, Knox led the
Early life, 1505–1546
John Knox was born sometime between 1505 and 1515[1] in or near Haddington, the county town of East Lothian.[3] His father, William Knox, was a merchant.[4] All that is known of his mother is that her maiden name was Sinclair and that she died when John Knox was a child.[5] Their eldest son, William, carried on his father's business, which helped in Knox's international communications.[4]
Knox was probably educated at the
Knox first appears in public records as a priest and a
Embracing the Protestant Reformation, 1546–1547
Knox did not record when or how he was converted to the Protestant faith,
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Knox had avoided being arrested by Lord Bothwell through Wishart's advice to return to tutoring. He took shelter with Douglas in
Knox's powers as a preacher came to the attention of the chaplain of the garrison,
Confinement in the French galleys, 1547–1549
John Knox's chaplaincy of the castle garrison was not to last long. While Hamilton was willing to negotiate with England to stop their support of the rebels and bring the castle back under his control, Mary of Guise decided that it could be taken only by force and requested the king of France,
In summer 1548, the galleys returned to Scotland to scout for English ships. Knox's health was now at its lowest point due to the severity of his confinement. He was ill with a fever and others on the ship were afraid for his life. Even in this state, Knox recalled, his mind remained sharp and he comforted his fellow prisoners with hopes of release. While the ships were lying offshore between St Andrews and
In February 1549, after spending a total of 19 months in the galley-prison, Knox was released. It is uncertain how he obtained his liberty.
Exile in England, 1549–1554
On his release, Knox took refuge in England. The
In England, Knox met his wife, Margery Bowes (died c. 1560). Her father, Richard Bowes (died 1558), was a descendant of an old Durham family and her mother, Elizabeth Aske, was an heiress of a Yorkshire family, the Askes of Richmondshire.[36][37] Elizabeth presumably met Knox when he was employed in Berwick. Several letters reveal a close friendship between them.[38] It is not recorded when Knox married Margery Bowes.[39] Knox attempted to obtain the consent of the Bowes family, but her father and her brother Robert Bowes were opposed to the marriage.[40]
Towards the end of 1550, Knox was appointed a preacher of
Soon afterwards, Dudley, who saw Knox as a useful political tool, offered him the bishopric of Rochester. Knox refused, and he returned to Newcastle.[42] On 2 February 1553 Cranmer was ordered to appoint Knox as vicar of All Hallows, Bread Street, in London, placing him under the authority of the Bishop of London, Nicholas Ridley. Knox returned to London in order to deliver a sermon before the King and the Court during Lent and he again refused to take the assigned post. Knox was then told to preach in Buckinghamshire and he remained there until Edward's death on 6 July.[43] Edward's successor, Mary Tudor, re-established Roman Catholicism in England and restored the Mass in all the churches. With the country no longer safe for Protestant preachers, Knox left for the Continent in January 1554 on the advice of friends.[44] On the eve of his flight, he wrote:
Sometime I have thought that impossible it had been, so to have removed my affection from the realm of Scotland, that any realm or nation could have been equal dear to me. But God I take to record in my conscience, that the troubles present (and appearing to be) in the realm of England are double more dolorous unto my heart than ever were the troubles of Scotland.[45]
From Geneva to Frankfurt and Scotland, 1554–1556
Knox disembarked in
In a letter dated 24 September 1554, Knox received an invitation from a congregation of English exiles in Frankfurt to become one of their ministers. He accepted the call with Calvin's blessing. But no sooner had he arrived than he found himself in a conflict. The first set of refugees to arrive in Frankfurt had subscribed to a reformed liturgy and used a modified version of the Book of Common Prayer. More recently arrived refugees, however, including Edmund Grindal, the future Archbishop of Canterbury, favoured a stricter application of the book. When Knox and a supporting colleague, William Whittingham, wrote to Calvin for advice, they were told to avoid contention. Knox therefore agreed on a temporary order of service based on a compromise between the two sides. This delicate balance was disturbed when a new batch of refugees arrived that included Richard Cox, one of the principal authors of the Book of Common Prayer. Cox brought Knox's pamphlet attacking the emperor to the attention of the Frankfurt authorities, who advised that Knox leave. His departure from Frankfurt on 26 March 1555 marked his final breach with the Church of England.[50]
After his return to Geneva, Knox was chosen to be the minister at a new place of worship petitioned from Calvin. As such, he exerted an influence on French Protestants, whether they were exiled in Geneva or in France.
Though the Queen Regent, Mary of Guise, made no move against Knox, his activities caused concern among the church authorities. The bishops of Scotland viewed him as a threat to their authority and summoned him to appear in Edinburgh on 15 May 1556. He was accompanied to the trial by so many influential persons that the bishops decided to call the hearing off. Knox was now free to preach openly in Edinburgh. William Keith, the Earl Marischal, was impressed and urged Knox to write to the Queen Regent. Knox's unusually respectful letter urged her to support the Reformation and overthrow the church hierarchy. Queen Mary took the letter as a joke and ignored it.[54]
Return to Geneva, 1556–1559
Shortly after Knox sent the letter to the Queen Regent, he suddenly announced that he felt his duty was to return to Geneva. In the previous year on 1 November 1555, the congregation in Geneva had elected Knox as their minister and he decided to take up the post.[55] He wrote a final letter of advice to his supporters and left Scotland with his wife and mother-in-law. He arrived in Geneva on 13 September 1556.[56]
For the next two years, he lived a happy life in Geneva. He recommended Geneva to his friends in England as the best place of asylum for Protestants. In one letter he wrote:
I neither fear nor eschame to say, is the most perfect school of Christ that ever was in the earth since the days of the apostles. In other places I confess Christ to be truly preached; but manners and religion so sincerely reformed, I have not yet seen in any other place ...[57]
Knox led a busy life in Geneva. He preached three sermons a week, each lasting well over two hours. The services used a liturgy that was derived by Knox and other ministers from Calvin's Formes des Prières Ecclésiastiques.
In the summer of 1558, Knox published his best-known pamphlet,
With a Protestant on the throne, the English refugees in Geneva prepared to return home. Knox himself decided to return to Scotland. Before his departure, various honours were conferred on him, including the freedom of the city of Geneva. Knox left in January 1559, but he did not arrive in Scotland until 2 May 1559, owing to Elizabeth's refusal to issue him a passport through England.[62]
Revolution and end of the regency, 1559–1560
Two days after Knox arrived in Edinburgh, he proceeded to Dundee where a large number of Protestant sympathisers had gathered. Knox was declared an outlaw, and the Queen Regent summoned the Protestants to Stirling. Fearing the possibility of a summary trial and execution, the Protestants proceeded instead to Perth, a walled town that could be defended in case of a siege. At the church of St John the Baptist, Knox preached a fiery sermon and a small incident precipitated into a riot. A mob poured into the church and it was soon gutted. The mob then attacked two friaries (Blackfriars and Greyfriars) in the town, looting their gold and silver and smashing images. Mary of Guise gathered those nobles loyal to her and a small French army. She dispatched the Earl of Argyll and Lord Moray to offer terms and avert a war. She promised not to send any French troops into Perth if the Protestants evacuated the town. The Protestants agreed, but when the Queen Regent entered Perth, she garrisoned it with Scottish soldiers on the French payroll. This was seen as treacherous by Lord Argyll and Lord Moray, who both switched sides and joined Knox, who now based himself in St Andrews. Knox's return to St Andrews fulfilled the prophecy he made in the galleys that he would one day preach again in its church. When he did give a sermon, the effect was the same as in Perth. The people engaged in vandalism and looting.[64] In June 1559, a Protestant mob incited by the preaching of John Knox ransacked the cathedral; the interior of the building was destroyed. The cathedral fell into decline following the attack and became a source of building material for the town. By 1561 it had been abandoned and left to fall into ruin.
With Protestant reinforcements arriving from neighbouring counties, the Queen Regent retreated to Dunbar. By now, the mob fury had spilled over central Scotland. Her own troops were on the verge of mutiny. On 30 June, the Protestant Lords of the Congregation occupied Edinburgh, though they were able to hold it for only a month. But even before their arrival, the mob had already sacked the churches and the friaries. On 1 July, Knox preached from the pulpit of St Giles', the most influential in the capital.[65] The Lords of the Congregation negotiated their withdrawal from Edinburgh by the Articles of Leith signed 25 July 1559, and Mary of Guise promised freedom of conscience.[66]
Knox knew that the Queen Regent would ask for help from France, so he negotiated by letter under the assumed name John Sinclair with
When additional French troops arrived in Leith, Edinburgh's seaport, the Protestants responded by retaking Edinburgh. This time, on 24 October 1559, the Scottish nobility formally deposed Mary of Guise from the regency. Her secretary, William Maitland of Lethington, defected to the Protestant side, bringing his administrative skills. From then on, Maitland took over the political tasks, freeing Knox for the role of religious leader. For the final stage of the revolution, Maitland appealed to Scottish patriotism to fight French domination. Following the Treaty of Berwick, support from England finally arrived and by the end of March, a significant English army joined the Scottish Protestant forces. The sudden death of Mary of Guise in Edinburgh Castle on 10 June 1560 paved the way for an end to hostilities, the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh, and the withdrawal of French and English troops from Scotland. On 19 July, Knox held a National Thanksgiving Service at St Giles'.[68]
Reformation in Scotland, 1560–1561
On 1 August, the
Parliament reconvened on 15 January 1561 to consider the Book of Discipline. The Kirk was to be run on democratic lines. Each congregation was free to choose or reject its own pastor, but once he was chosen he could not be fired. Each parish was to be self-supporting, as far as possible. The bishops were replaced by ten to twelve "superintendents". The plan included a system of national education based on universality as a fundamental principle. Certain areas of law were placed under ecclesiastical authority.[71] The Parliament did not approve the plan, however, mainly for reasons of finance. The Kirk was to be financed out of the patrimony of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland. Much of this was now in the hands of the nobles, who were reluctant to give up their possessions. A final decision on the plan was delayed because of the impending return of Mary, Queen of Scots.[72]
Knox and Queen Mary, 1561–1564
On 19 August 1561, cannons were fired in Leith to announce Queen Mary's arrival in Scotland. When she attended Mass being celebrated in the royal chapel at Holyrood Palace five days later, this prompted a protest in which one of her servants was jostled. The next day she issued a proclamation that there would be no alteration in the current state of religion and that her servants should not be molested or troubled. Many nobles accepted this, but not Knox. The following Sunday, he protested from the pulpit of St Giles'. As a result, just two weeks after her return, Mary summoned Knox. She accused him of inciting a rebellion against her mother and of writing a book against her own authority. Knox answered that as long as her subjects found her rule convenient, he was willing to accept her governance, noting that Paul the Apostle had been willing to live under Nero's rule. Mary noted, however, that he had written against the principle of female rule itself. He responded that she should not be troubled by what had never harmed her. When Mary asked him whether subjects had a right to resist their ruler, he replied that if monarchs exceeded their lawful limits, they might be resisted, even by force.[73]
On 13 December 1562, Mary sent for Knox again after he gave a sermon denouncing certain celebrations which Knox had interpreted as rejoicing at the expense of the Reformation. She charged that Knox spoke irreverently of the Queen in order to make her appear contemptible to her subjects. After Knox gave an explanation of the sermon, Mary stated that she did not blame Knox for the differences of opinion and asked that in the future he come to her directly if he heard anything about her that he disliked. Despite her gesture, Knox replied that he would continue to voice his convictions in his sermons and would not wait upon her.[75]
During Easter in 1563, some priests in Ayrshire celebrated Mass, thus defying the law. Some Protestants tried to enforce the law themselves by apprehending these priests. This prompted Mary to summon Knox for the third time. She asked Knox to use his influence to promote religious toleration. He defended their actions and noted she was bound to uphold the laws and if she did not, others would. Mary surprised Knox by agreeing that the priests would be brought to justice.[76]
The most dramatic interview between Mary and Knox took place on 24 June 1563.[77] Mary summoned Knox to Holyrood after hearing that he had been preaching against her proposed marriage to Don Carlos, the son of Philip II of Spain. Mary began by scolding Knox, then she burst into tears. "What have ye to do with my marriage?" she asked, and "What are ye within this commonwealth?"[78] "A subject born within the same, Madam," Knox replied.[78] He noted that though he was not of noble birth, he had the same duty as any subject to warn of dangers to the realm. When Mary started to cry again, he said, "Madam, in God's presence I speak: I never delighted in the weeping of any of God's creatures; yea I can scarcely well abide the tears of my own boys whom my own hand corrects, much less can I rejoice in your Majesty's weeping."[79] He added that he would rather endure her tears, however, than remain silent and "betray my Commonwealth". At this, Mary ordered him out of the room.[80]
Knox's final encounter with Mary was prompted by an incident at Holyrood. While Mary was absent from Edinburgh on her summer
Final years in Edinburgh, 1564–1572
On 26 March 1564, Knox stirred controversy again when he married Margaret Stewart, the daughter of an old friend, Andrew Stewart, 2nd Lord Ochiltree, a member of the Stuart family and a distant relative of the Queen, Mary Stuart. The marriage was unusual because he was a widower of fifty, while the bride was only seventeen.[84] Very few details are known of their domestic life. They had three daughters, Martha, Margaret, and Elizabeth.[85]
When the General Assembly convened in June 1564, an argument broke out between Knox and Maitland over the authority of the civil government. Maitland told Knox to refrain from stirring up emotions over Mary's insistence on having mass celebrated and he quoted from
After the
On 9 March 1566, Mary's secretary,
The fighting in Scotland continued as a
After inducting his successor, James Lawson of Aberdeen, as minister of St Giles' on 9 November, Knox returned to his home for the last time. With his friends and some of the greatest Scottish nobles around him, he asked for the Bible to be read aloud. On his last day, 24 November 1572, his young wife read from Paul's first letter to the Corinthians.[91] A testimony to Knox was pronounced at his grave in the churchyard of St Giles' by James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, and newly elected regent of Scotland: "Here lies one who never feared any flesh".[92] After the churchyard's destruction in 1633 the precise site of Knox's grave cannot be established.[93]
Legacy
In his will, Knox claimed: "None have I corrupted, none have I defrauded; merchandise have I not made."[94] The paltry sum of money Knox bequeathed to his family, which would have left them in dire poverty, showed that he had not profited from his work in the Kirk. The regent, Lord Morton, asked the General Assembly to continue paying his stipend to his widow for one year after his death, and the regent ensured that Knox's dependents were decently supported.[94]
Knox was survived by his five children and his second wife. Nathaniel and Eleazar, his two sons by his first wife, attended
Knox's death was barely noticed at the time. Although his funeral was attended by the nobles of Scotland, no major politician or diplomat mentioned his death in their surviving letters. Mary, Queen of Scots, made only two brief references to him in her letters.[99] However, what the rulers feared were Knox's ideas more than Knox himself. He was a successful reformer and it was this philosophy of reformation that had a great impact on the English Puritans. He has also been described as having contributed to the struggle for genuine human freedom, by teaching a duty to oppose unjust government in order to bring about moral and spiritual change.[99] His epitaph reads: "Here lies one who feared God so much that he never feared the face of any man." This is a reference to Matthew 10:28.[100]
Knox was notable not so much for the overthrow of Roman Catholicism in Scotland, but for assuring the replacement of the established Christian religion with Presbyterianism rather than Anglicanism. Knox was instrumental in the establishment of the Presbyterian polity,[101] though it took 120 years following his death for this to be achieved in 1689. Meanwhile, he accepted the status quo and was happy to see his friends appointed bishops and archbishops, even preaching at the inauguration of the Protestant Archbishop of St Andrews John Douglas in 1571.[102] In that regard, Knox is considered the notional founder of the Presbyterian denomination, whose members number millions worldwide.[103]
A bust of Knox, by
Selected works
- An Epistle to the Congregation of the Castle of St Andrews; with a Brief Summary of Balnaves on Justification by Faith (1548)
- A Vindication of the Doctrine that the Sacrifice of the Mass is Idolatry (1550)
- A Godly Letter of Warning or Admonition to the Faithful in London, Newcastle, and Berwick (1554)
- Certain Questions Concerning Obedience to Lawful Magistrates with Answers by Henry Bullinger (1554)
- A Faithful Admonition to the Professors of God's Truth in England (1554)
- A Narrative of the Proceedings and Troubles of the English Congregation at Frankfurt on the Maine (1554–1555)
- A Letter to the Queen Dowager, Regent of Scotland (1556)
- A Letter of Wholesome Counsel Addressed to his Brethren in Scotland (1556)
- The Form of Prayers and Ministration of the Sacraments Used in the English Congregation at Geneva (1556)
- The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women (1558)
- A Letter to the Queen Dowager, Regent of Scotland: Augmented and Explained by the Author (1558)
- The Appellation from the Sentence Pronounced by the Bishops and Clergy: Addressed to the Nobility and Estates of Scotland (1558)
- A Letter Addressed to the Commonalty of Scotland (1558)
- On Predestination in Answer to the Cavillations by an Anabaptist (1560)
- The History of the Reformation in Scotland (1586–1587)
Notes
- ^ a b MacGregor 1957, pp. 229–231; Ridley 1968, pp. 531–534. Until David Hay Fleming published new research in 1904, John Knox was thought to have been born in 1505. Hay Fleming's conclusion was that Knox was born between 1513 and 1515. Sources using this date include MacGregor 1957, p. 13 and Reid 1974, p. 15. Ridley notes additional research supports the later date which is now generally accepted by historians. However, some recent books on more general topics still give the earlier date for his birth or a wide range of possibility; for example: Arthur. F. Kinney and David. W. Swain (eds.)(2000), Tudor England: an Encyclopedia, p. 412 (between 1505 and 1515); M. E. Wiesner-Hanks (2006), Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789, Cambridge University Press, p. 170 (1505?); and Michael. A. Mullet (1989), Calvin, Routledge, p. 64 (1505).
- ^ "Foirm na nurrnuidheadh agas freasdal na sacramuinteadh, agas foirceadul an chreidimh Christuidhe andso sios : Mar ghnathuighear an eagluisibh alban doghradhuigh agas doghlac soisgel dileas dé tareis an fhuar chreidimh dochur ar goul ar na dtarraing as Laidin, & as Gaillbherla in Gaoidheilg le M. Seon Carusuel Ministir Eagluise dé agcriochaibh earragaoidheal darab comhainm easbug indseadh gall, ni héidir le henduine, fundamuint oile do tsuidhiughadh acht anfhundamuint ata ar na suighiughadh I. Iosa Criosd". images.is.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 15
- ^ a b Dawson 2015, pp. 14, 150
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 13
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 16
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 229–231. According to MacGregor, there is a "John Knox" recorded to have enrolled at the University of Glasgow in 1522. However, the name John Knox was quite common, and the identification of the Glasgow student as the future reformer cannot be made with certainty. John Major was known to have taught at the University of Glasgow and later at the University of St Andrews. Given the birth date calculated by Hay Fleming, he would have been too young to have attended Glasgow at the time when Major was teaching there. The time when Major was teaching at St Andrews is consistent both with Knox being of university age and with a statement made by Theodore Beza that Knox was taught by Major at St Andrews.
- ^ Dawson 2015, p. 19
- ^ Ridley 1968, pp. 19–21
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 24; Ridley 1968, pp. 26, 49
- ^ Ridley 1968, p. frontispiece. Portrait facing title page. According to Ridley, this portrait is usually thought to be painted from memory by the Flemish painter Adrian Vanson and sent by Peter Young, an assistant of George Buchanan, to Beza.
- ^ Reid 1974, p. xiv
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 31; Ridley 1968, p. 26
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 27; Ridley 1968, p. 41
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 13; Ridley 1968, pp. 33–34
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 29; Ridley 1968, pp. 39–40; MacGregor 1957, p. 30
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 37
- ^ Ridley 1968, p. 43
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 34; Ridley 1968, p. 44
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 43; Ridley 1968, p. 53
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 44–45; Ridley 1968, p. 52; MacGregor 1957, pp. 40–42
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 43
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 48–50; Ridley 1968, p. 56
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 52
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 53–55; Ridley 1968, pp. 60–69
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 45–47
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 55; Ridley 1968, pp. 66–70
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 57
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 49–50
- ^ Ridley 1968, p. 75
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 68; Ridley 1968, p. 81. Reid suggests that some of Knox's friends may have appealed to the King of France. Ridley surmises that Knox's health was so poor that he was of no use for the galleys. Other theories include Guy 2004, p. 39 who claimed Somerset arranged for his release and safe-conduct to London. Another theory by Marshall 2000, p. 30 proposes that Somerset conducted a prisoner exchange that included Knox to get back English military experts captured at St Andrews.
- ^ Jordan, W. K., The Chronicle and Political Papers of Edward VI, London (1966), p. 38, Edward VI wrote the prisoners were previously released for his sake: CSP Scotland, vol. 1 (1898), p. 175 no. 347, Instructions for Holcroft, Harington & Leke, 19 May 1549, proposed exchange of all remaining Castilian prisoners.
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 53
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 71–74; Ridley 1968, pp. 88–89
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 76–79; Ridley 1968, pp. 93–94; MacGregor 1957, p. 54
- ^ McGladdery 2004.
- ^ Richardson II 2011, p. 447.
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 79–81; Ridley 1968, pp. 130–138
- ^ Ridley 1968, pp. 140–141; Reid 1974, p. 95. Reid notes that Knox's letters to Elizabeth changed in January 1553 when he started to address her as his mother rather than his sister. He speculates that Knox was betrothed to Margery in that month.
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 101; Ridley 1968, pp. 141–142, 161–163
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 82–91; Ridley 1968, pp. 101–109
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 92–93; Ridley 1968, pp. 115–119
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 94–99; Ridley 1968, pp. 121–126
- ^ Ridley 1968, pp. 147–164
- ^ Ridley 1968, p. 165; Reid 1974, pp. 102–103
- OCLC 57414662.
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 68
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 111; Ridley 1968, pp. 178–188. The title of the pamphlet is A Faithful Admonition unto the Professors of God's Truth in England
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 70
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 123–127; MacGregor 1957, pp. 72–77
- ^ Durot 2021, pp. 109–126
- ^ According to MacGregor 1957, p. 78, Elizabeth informed Knox that her husband, Richard, had died. According to Ridley 1968, pp. 265–266, however, Richard did not die until 1558 and Elizabeth left her husband to go with Margery and Knox.
- ^ Ridley 1968, pp. 223–227
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 81–83
- ^ Marshall 2000, pp. 85–86
- ^ Ridley 1968, pp. 237–243
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 132
- ^ Laing 1895, pp. 143–148, Vol. 4; A reprint of the order of service, The Forms of Prayers in the Ministration of the Sacraments used in the English Congregation at Geneva (1556), is included in Laing's book. According to Laing, this order of service with some additions eventually became the Book of Common Order of the Kirk in 1565.
- ^ Laing 1895, pp. xvii–xviii, Vol. 1
- ^ Kingdon 1995, p. 197
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 97
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 96–112
- ^ a b Miles, Hamish. "gallery". Artware Fine Art. Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
the large Preaching of Knox before the Lords of the Congregation (exh. RA, 1832; Tate collection); it went to Peel.
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 116–125
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 127
- ^ Calendar State Papers Scotland, vol. 1 (1898), 231–232, no. 500: Knox, John, History of the Reformation, bk.2; Laing, David, ed., The Works of John Knox, vol. 1, (1846), 374–381.
- ^ Calendar State Papers Scotland, vol.1 (1898), pp. 235–239.
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 131–146
- ^ "Register of Books, Engravings, Music &c". Bent's Monthly Literary Advertiser: 57. 10 April 1841. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 148–152
- ^ Laing 1895, pp. 183–260, Vol. 2, The First Book of Discipline (1560)
- ^ MacGregor 1957
- ^ Guy 2004, p. 142; Warnicke 2006, p. 71; MacGregor 1957, pp. 162–172
- ^ From Covenant Presbyterian Church, Long Beach, California, United States
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 174–184
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 185–189
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 191
- ^ a b Guy 2004, p. 176; MacGregor 1957, p. 195
- ^ MacGregor 1957, p. 196
- ^ Guy 2004, p. 177
- ^ Guy 2004, pp. 186–87; Warnicke 2006, p. 93; MacGregor 1957, pp. 198–208
- ^ Scott 1915, p. 23.
- ^ Scott 1915, p. 52.
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 222–223; Ridley 1968, p. 432
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 208–210
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 233–235
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 238–239
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 242–243; Ridley 1968, pp. 447–455
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 246–248, 253; Ridley 1968, pp. 446–466; MacGregor 1957, pp. 213–216
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 216–222
- ^ MacGregor 1957, pp. 223–225
- ^ Reid 1974, p. 283; Ridley 1968, p. 518
- ISBN 978-3-7326-2740-0.
- ^ a b MacGregor 1957, p. 226
- ^ "Knox, Nathaniel (KNS576N)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
- ^ Dawson 2015, p. 311
- ^ "Knox, Eleazar (KNS572E)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
- ^ Reid 1974, pp. 283–284; Ridley 1968, pp. 520–521
- ^ a b Ridley 1968, pp. 522–523, 527, 529–530
- ^ Believer's Bible Commentary, William MacDonald, ed., 1995, p. 1,241.
- ^ Ridley 1968, p. 528
- ^ Dawson 2015, p. 301
- ISBN 0-415-13582-6).
- ^ "John Knox" (PDF). nationalwallacemonument.com. National Wallace Monument. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
References
Primary sources
- Laing, David, ed. (1895), The Works of John Knox, Edinburgh: James Thin, 55 South Bridge, OCLC 5437053.
- Melville, James (1829), Diary of James Melville, Edinburgh: OCLC 1697717.
Secondary sources
- Dawson, Jane E.A. (2015), John Knox, London: Yale University Press, ISBN 9780300114737.
- Durot, Eric (2021), "The Role of John Knox and his Seditious Writings in the Outbreak of the French Wars of Religion", Sedition. The Spread of Controversial Literature and Ideas in France and Scotland, c.1550-1610, eds. John O'Brien and Marc Schachter, Brepols, pp. 109–126
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). - Farrow, Kenneth D. (2004), John Knox: Reformation Rhetoric and the Traditions of Scots Prose, 1490–1570, Oxford: Peter Lang.
- Gribben, Crawford, "John Knox, Reformation History and National Self-Fashioning", Reformation & Renaissance Review 8, no. 1 (April 2006): 48–66
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location (link). - ISBN 978-1-84115-752-8.
- Kingdon, Robert M. (1995), "Calvinism and resistance theory, 1550–1580", in Burns, J.H. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Political Thought 1450–1700, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-47772-7.
- Kyle, Richard G., "John Knox: the Main Themes of His Thought", Princeton Seminary Bulletin 4, no. 2 (1983): 101–112
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location (link). - Kyle, Richard G. (1984), The Mind of John Knox, Kansas: Coronado Press.
- OCLC 740182.
- McGladdery, C.A. (2004). "Bowes, Robert (d. 1597)". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/3059. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- McEwen, James S. (2004), John Knox: The Faith of John Knox: The Croall lectures for 1960, Glasgow: University of Glasgow.
- Marshall, Rosalind (2000), John Knox, Edinburgh: Birlinn, ISBN 978-1-84158-091-3.
- Park, Jae-Eun, "John Knox's Doctrine of Predestination and Its Practical Application for His Ecclesiology", Puritan Reformed Journal, 5, 2 (2013): 65–90
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location (link). - Reid, W. Stanford (1974), Trumpeter of God, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-684-13782-8.
- Richardson, Douglas (2011). Everingham, Kimball G. (ed.). Magna Carta Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families. Vol. II (2nd ed.). Salt Lake City. ISBN 978-1-4499-6638-6.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - OCLC 251907110.
- Scott, Hew (1915). Fasti ecclesiae scoticanae; the succession of ministers in the Church of Scotland from the reformation. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd..
- Walton, Kristen P. (2007), Catholic Queen, Protestant Patriarchy: Mary, Queen of Scots and the Politics of Gender and Religion, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, ISBN 9781403988355.
- ISBN 0-415-29183-6.
Further reading
- OCLC 1982057.
- Innes, A. Taylor (1905), John Knox (Quarter-centenary ed.), Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier, OCLC 13323997.
- OCLC 5163286.
- OCLC 1296659.
- Whitley, Elizabeth (1960), Plain Mr. Knox, London: Skeffington & Son Ltd., OCLC 2475573.
External links
- Free Online Access to Works of John Knox Archived 12 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- Works by John Knox at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about John Knox at Internet Archive
- Works by John Knox at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- John Knox Book on Predestination
- Querelle | John Knox Querelle.ca is a website devoted to the works of authors contributing to the pro-woman side of the querelle des femmes.