Joseph Gallieni

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Joseph Gallieni
Gallieni in 1910
112th Minister of War
In office
29 October 1915 – 16 March 1916
PresidentRaymond Poincaré
Prime MinisterAristide Briand
Preceded byAlexandre Millerand
Succeeded byPierre Roques
Personal details
Born(1849-04-24)24 April 1849
Versailles, French Republic
NationalityFrench
SpouseMarthe Savelli
ChildrenThéodore François Gaëtan Gallieni
Alma mater
Military service
Allegiance
Second Empire
French Third Republic Third Republic
Branch/serviceFrench Army
Years of service1868 – 1916
RankDivision general[a]
Commands
Battles/warsFranco-Prussian War
World War I

Joseph Simon Gallieni (24 April 1849 – 27 May 1916) was a French military officer, active for most of his career as a military commander and administrator in the

French colonies where he wrote several books on colonial affairs.[1]

He was recalled from retirement at the beginning of the

Sixth Army
, which was under his command, attacked the German west flank. A small portion of its strength was rushed to the front in commandeered Paris taxicabs.

From October 1915 he served as Minister of War, resigning from that post in March 1916 after criticizing the performance of the French Commander-in-Chief, Joseph Joffre (formerly his subordinate, earlier in their careers), during the German attack on Verdun. He died later that year and was made Marshal of France posthumously in 1921.

Early life and career

Gallieni was born in 1849 at

Saint-Beat, in the department of Haute-Garonne, in the central Pyrenees.[2] He was of Corsican[3] and Italian descent.[4] His father, born in Pogliano Milanese, had risen from the ranks to be a captain.[5][6]

He was educated and a hard-working student at the

Gallieni fought at

Sedan[9] and was taken prisoner at Bazeilles, scene of the stand of the colonial marines.[10] He learned German whilst a prisoner there, and later kept a notebook in German, English and Italian called "Erinnerungen of my life di ragazzo" ("Memories of my life from boyhood [onwards]").[11]

Colonial Service

Execution of two Malagasy officials under order of General Gallieni
Frieze of Gallieni near the Rova of Antananarivo in Madagascar

He was promoted to

lieutenant-colonel,[13] and was later appointed governor of the French Sudan, during which time he successfully quelled a rebellion by Sudanese insurgents under Mahmadu Lamine. He was outstanding at colonial penetration without open hostilities in West Africa in 1880 and 1886-8.[14]

In 1888 he was appointed to the War College. In 1892-6 he served as a colonel in

Đề Thám, but further military action was overruled by colonial administrators after Đề Thám was accorded a local fiefdom.[15]

In 1896 he was promoted to General and made Governor of Madagascar, then a new French possession, where the French had just been defeated[

oil spot" method, which continues to influence counterinsurgency theory to this day[19]) and politique des races (literally, racial policy; i.e., eliminating the racial hierarchy that had prevailed and suppressing tribes that resisted French rule).[20] Initially military, his role became more administrative, building roads, a railway, markets, medical services and schools.[21]

In 1905 Gallieni defended the code de l’indigenat (the right of French officials to mete out summary punishment, including corporal punishment and confiscation of property, to individuals and to entire villages), as it administered punishment more arbitrarily and swiftly than would be possible under due legal process.[22]

Return to France

In 1905 Gallieni was appointed Military Governor of Lyon and commandant of the Army of the Alps (XIV Corps). Also in 1906 he became a member of the Conseil Superieur de la Guerre (the Superior War Council, a body of senior generals chaired by the President).[23][24]

General

Yvon Dubail and Pol Durand, Gallieni was one of those who told War Minister Messimy that Michel must be removed.[25]

Following Michel's removal Gallieni, who was the preferred choice of Prime Minister Caillaux, declined the job of Army Chief of Staff.[26] This was partly because of scruples after having forced Michel out, partly because of age—he was two and a half years away from retirement—and partly because the Metropolitan Army might resent a colonial soldier getting the job ("une question de bouton"). His former subordinate Joffre was appointed instead.[27][28]

Pre-World War I

Gallieni commanded

Fifth Army until his retirement, and protested that it was not strong enough to advance into Belgium, and that Maubeuge should be fortified more strongly. His successor Lanrezac shared his concerns.[29] After tours of the area Gallieni had failed to persuade the authorities to modernise Maubeuge.[30]

Like a number of officers with colonial experience, Gallieni wanted the French army to give up the pantalon rouge (red trousers worn by French soldiers, allegedly as a boost to morale) and adopt a less conspicuous uniform. This was vetoed on the grounds that dull uniforms might be confused with those of the enemy and might turn the army into a citizen militia like the Boers.[31]

At the 1911 manoeuvres Gallieni used air reconnaissance to capture a colonel of the Supreme War Council and his staff.[32] He expressed reservations about the limited offensive strategy. His views on fortifications, artillery, and use of information obtained from aviation and intelligence were seen as unusual views for a colonial soldier.[33]

In the same year, Gallieni was considered the logical choice for supreme commander of the French Army, but because of advanced age and poor health, he declined in favour of Joffre.[34]

His date of retirement is given as February[35] or April 1914.[36] His wife died in early summer 1914.[37]

Before the war he wrote of Joffre in his diary, "When I was riding I passed him in the bois [woods] today—on foot as usual—how fat and heavy he is; he will hardly last out his three years."[38] He warned Joffre, correctly as it would turn out, that the Germans would come west of the Meuse in strength (i.e. make an enveloping move deep into Belgium, rather than a shallow incursion through the south-east corner of Belgium and down through the Ardennes).[39]

First World War

The Marne

Gallieni was designated as Joffre's successor "in case of emergency" on 31 July.[40] Joffre refused to have him at his headquarters, saying "He is difficult to place. I have always been under his orders. Il m’a toujours fait mousser [He always riled me]."[41] On 14 August, as the Lorraine offensive was beginning, Gallieni visited Joffre at the insistence of War Minister Adolphe Messimy, who felt intimidated by Joffre. Messimy imagined that Joffre would be more likely to listen to his former superior, but he was quickly palmed off onto the staff officer General Belin and his deputy Berthelot.[42][43]

Military Governor of Paris

As a condition of becoming

Union sacrée), and on 27 August the new War Minister Millerand (who had replaced Messimy largely because of the poor state of the Paris defences) visited Joffre, who promised to provide the three corps if Maunoury's attack should fail.[44][45][46]

On 28 August the "Zone of Armies" was extended to cover the Paris suburbs. From 10 am to 10:15 am Gallieni held his one and only Council of Defence, at which his military and civil cabinets, standing up and without discussion, were made to sign the order placing Paris in a state of defence. He sacked two generals in his first two days.[47]

On 2 September, the anniversary of the

Sixth Army, which was retreating down from the Amiens area, under Gallieni's direct command as the "Armies of Paris." Gallieni at once drove out to inspect his new command—he was horrified by the sight of the refugees—and to visit Maunoury. Gallieni had four territorial divisions and the 185th Territorial Brigade. He soon received a Marine Artillery Brigade (mostly Breton reservist sailors) and the 84th Territorial Division. Sixth Army was soon augmented by IV Corps from Third Army. Maunoury had an active division of VII Corps, a 5,000 strong native Moroccan brigade, and four reserve divisions: 61st and 62nd under Ebener, and 55th and 56th which had fought in Lorraine. Joffre also added Drude's 45th Division of Zouaves from Algeria, who made a huge impression marching through Paris, and IV Corps from Third Army. The Prefect of Police had resigned "on grounds of health" on being ordered to remain at his post. Gallieni stayed up with his staff all night drawing up plans for Sixth Army to give battle between the Oise and Pontoise. Joffre had Millerand place Gallieni under his own command on 2 September.[51][52][53][54]

MILITARY GOVERNMENT OF PARIS

Army of Paris,
Residents of Paris,

The members of the Government
of the Republic have left Paris to give
a new impulse to the national defense.

I have received the mandate to defend Paris
against the invader.

This mandate, I shall carry out to the end.

Paris, 3 September 1914

The Military Governor of Paris,
Commanding the Army of Paris,

GALLIENI

Gallieni believed that Joffre's strategy of retreating behind the Seine was "divorced from reality" as the Germans would not allow his forces enough time to rally. He spent the night of 2/3 September at his new HQ at Lycee Victor-Duruy, expecting a German attack the next day. On the morning of 3 September he learned that von Kluck was marching southeast across Paris, offering his flank to a French counterattack.[55][56] The first public proclamation on the morning of 3 September promised to defend Paris "to the last extremity." That morning Gallieni set engineers and civilian labourers to work cutting down woods and trees, and preparing bridges and buildings for demolition to clear lines of sight for guns. For three days concrete was poured and barbed wire strung up. Even the Eiffel Tower was prepared for demolition. Paris had 2,924 guns, ranging from 155mm to 75mm. Hospitals and fire departments put on alert. Gas for three months of electricity was stockpiled, along with bread for 43 days, salt for 20 days and meat for 12 days. Pigeons were brought under state control for carrying messages. Lt-Col Dreyfus rejoined the artillery. Civilian paniquards were encouraged to leave and reconnaissance patrols were set up.[57][58][59]

Planning the counterattack

On the night of 3–4 September Joffre sent a handwritten note to Gallieni, wanting Maunoury's Sixth Army to push east along the north bank of the Marne, although not specifying a date. This was in line with his modification of Instruction General No 4 (2 September), envisaging a giant pocket from Paris to Verdun, of which he enclosed copies to Gallieni.[60]

Gallieni decided that it was "vital to act quickly" so as not to leave Paris uncovered. At 09:10 on 4 September, based on the previous day's reports of Paris aviators, which he had passed on to Joffre, and on his own authority, he sent orders to Maunoury to be ready to move his army that afternoon (now reinforced with Drude's 45th Infantry Division) and to be ready to come to Paris for a conference. Having first informed

Poincare in Bordeaux—in Tuchman's view, to force Joffre's hand—at 9:45 am he had the first of a series of telephone calls, conducted through aides, as Joffre would not come to the phone, and Gallieni refused to speak to anyone else. Gallieni would later write that "the real Battle of the Marne was fought on the telephone." He proposed, depending on how much further the Germans were to be allowed to advance, to attack north of the Marne on 6 September or south of the Marne on 7 September.[61][62][63]

Joffre's reply, saying he preferred the southern option (which would take a day longer as it forced

Fifth Army, on the British right), which envisaged Sixth Army attacking north of the Marne.[64][65][66][67]

In the absence of news from Franchet d'Esperey, Joffre ordered Major Gamelin to draft orders for Maunoury to attack south of the Marne on 7 September. That evening Gallieni, who returned to Paris find Joffre's message from earlier in the day and a message from Wilson, insisted on speaking to Joffre personally on the telephone, informing him that it was too late to cancel the movement of Maunoury's Army. Joffre agreed to bring forward the Allied offensive to 6 September and to have Sixth Army attack north of the Marne instead, later writing that he had done so reluctantly as Maunoury would probably make contact with the Germans on 5 September, but that an extra day would have left the Germans in a more "disadvantageous" position. Tuchman argues that he may simply have been swayed by the dominant personality of Gallieni, his former superior. At 8:30 pm Gallieni ordered the attack by Maunoury's Army, which was in fact already under way. At 10 pm Joffre issued General Order No 6, ordering a General Allied Offensive.[68][69][70][71]

Taxicab Army and the Battle of the Ourcq

On 5 September Gallieni informed Maunoury that there was to be no retreat and issued secret orders for the destruction of important parts of Paris, including the Pont Neuf and the Pont Alexandre III.[72]

On 7 September Gallieni, concerned that with Maunoury's Sixth Army fighting out in the open, Paris was now vulnerable, telegraphed the government in Bordeaux to discuss the possible evacuation of the civilian population from the Paris suburbs, and ordered

Sedan and Metz in 1870). Joffre, concerned that Gallieni might arouse Sir John's "touchiness," sent a telegram to Lord Kitchener (British War Secretary) thanking him for Sir John's efforts.[75]

It was Gallieni's decision to send 103rd and 104th Infantry Regiments (5 battalions, part of Trentinian's 7th Infantry Division, itself part of IV Corps; most of 7th Infantry Division, including artillery, had been sent to the front by rail and truck the previous night) to the front on the night of 7/8 September, in taxicabs commandeered the previous evening. The division's attack failed completely so the taxicab troops had even less impact than sometimes supposed. Although "great publicity for Gallieni; militarily it was insignificant" in Herwig's view. Upon seeing the "taxicab army" ferrying troops to the front, Gallieni made one of the most oft-quoted remarks of the First World War: "Eh bien, voilà au moins qui n'est pas banal!" ("Well, here at least is something out of the ordinary!").[76][77][78]

Learning of Gallieni's contingency plans to evacuate Paris the previous day, Joffre telegraphed Millerand (8 September) demanding that he cancel Gallieni's "dangerous" message, and insisting that Gallieni was under his orders and had no business communicating directly with the government.[79] On 8 September Gallieni ordered Maunoury, under heavy pressure from von Kluck, to hold his ground. Joffre gave permission for Maunoury to pull back his left if necessary. The Germans, concerned at the gap between their First and Second Armies, began to pull back on 9 September, giving the Allies a strategic victory in the Battle of the Marne.[80]

After the Marne

When the German warships Goeben and Breslau went to Constantinople, Gallieni proposed attacking the Turkish straits.[81]

By early December 1914 some of Gallieni's supporters were suggesting that he be appointed Commander-in-Chief in Joffre's place, or be made Minister of War, or both.[82]

Gallieni was an early supporter of some kind of expeditionary force to the Balkans.[83] Early in 1915 Gallieni supported the proposal of Franchet d’Esperey and Aristide Briand (Justice Minister) for an expedition to Salonika, which he hoped would detach first Turkey then Austria-Hungary, leaving Germany "doomed." President Poincare came out in favour of such a scheme, over Joffre's opposition, on 7 January 1915.[84]

Minister of War

Funerals of general Joseph Gallieni (May 1st, 1916)
Decorations and medals of the general
The North African soldiers, once under Gallieni's command, at his funerals

Appointment

With

Minister of War. Joffre replied "perhaps," then after a pause for thought "maybe." Although Gallieni agreed, in the event other French leaders refused to join Viviani's government so Briand formed a new government on 29 October 1915, with Viviani as Vice-President of the Council of Ministers (Deputy PM) and Gallieni as War Minister.[85]

Since July 1915 Joffre had been demanding that he be appointed commander-in-chief over all French forces, including those at the Dardanelles and Salonika. By November 1915 President Poincare was persuaded, and Briand, initially reluctant because of the difficulty of defending Gallieni's inclusion in his new ministry, agreed and on his first day in office asked Poincare to help him persuade Gallieni to accept Joffre's enhanced role. Gallieni agreed and wrote to Joffre—having first shown the letter to Briand—assuring him that "you can count on me." Briand had the two men meet and shake hands.[86][87]

At the meeting of the Superior Council of Defence (24 November 1915) Joffre had Briand address the demarcation of his own and Gallieni's authority, and objected to the Council discussing operational matters, threatening to resign if they attempted to interfere with his "liberty." Joffre met with Poincare and Briand both before and after the meeting to discuss the issue. Gallieni complained bitterly in his diary about the politicians’ unwillingness to stand up to Joffre. On 1 December Poincare and Briand met with Gallieni. They rejected the proposal prepared by his staff to vest authority in the Minister of War, Briand objecting that he would be obliged to answer questions in the Chamber about operational matters. Gallieni agreed that Joffre be commander-in-chief, with de Castelnau—who was soon sidelined—as his chief of staff, and under the War Minister's orders. A Presidential Decree of 2 December 1915 made Joffre "Commander-in-Chief of the French Armies" (generalissimo) over all theatres apart from North Africa. After considerable discussion this was approved by the Chamber of Deputies by 406-67 on 9 December.[88][89]

Policies

Gallieni cleared out soldiers from cushy jobs—three Paris theatres had been directed by Army officers. He authorised the renewed use of black African troops—50,000 in total—on the Western Front.[90] He introduced foyers du soldat—waiting rooms for soldiers in transit at railway stations.[91]

Although Gallieni supported the

Salonika expedition, he shared Joffre's low opinion of Sarrail’s military abilities. On 12 November Gallieni ordered Sarrail to retreat to Salonika with as much of the Serb Army as he could gather. After Sarrail lobbied politicians for reinforcements Gallieni wrote back to 19 November telling him that he was not going to receive the four corps he wanted, although on 20 November he sent Sarrail (whom he thought "indecisive and not up to the task") a telegram giving him a free choice as to whether to assist the latest Serb attack and when to fall back on Salonika.[92][93][94]

With evacuation of the Gallipoli bridgeheads under discussion, Gallieni was willing to divert troops there from Salonika for one last attempt.

Foreign Secretary), Kitchener (British War Secretary), Joffre and Briand) at which it was decided to maintain an Allied presence in Salonika, although it was unclear for how long. He later ordered Joffre to send an extra French division, although not the two Sarrail demanded.[96]

Resignation

Gallieni made an effort to unite soldiers and politicians, and to establish a working relationship in which he concentrated on supplying resources (not dissimilar to the role to which Kitchener was restricted in the UK from the end of 1915).[97] However, Gallieni had prostate cancer, with pain making him less tolerant of criticism at a time when political disquiet was growing after the failure of the Second Battle of Champagne, especially the failed attack on Hartmannswillerkopf and its subsequent total loss.[98][99]

In Clayton's view, Gallieni may well have been sceptical of Joffre's plans for a massive Anglo-French offensive on the Somme, to be accompanied by Italian and Russian offensives, as floated at the Chantilly meeting in 6–8 December 1915.[100] There was also friction over Gallieni's assertion of his right to appoint generals, Joffre's practice of communicating directly with the British generals rather than going through the War Ministry, and Gallieni's maintaining contacts with generals whom Joffre had replaced.[101]

In autumn 1915 Lt-Colonel Driant, a member of the Chamber of Deputies and commander of a chasseurs brigade, complained to Gallieni of how Joffre had been removing guns and garrisons from Verdun and even preparing some forts for demolition. Joffre was furious and disputed Gallieni's right to comment.[102][103] Driant, who had served at Verdun, was a member of the Army Commission of the Chamber of Deputies. The Council of Ministers discussed his reports and President Poincare asked Gallieni to investigate. Gallieni wrote to Joffre (16 or 18 December 1915) expressing concern at the state of trenches at Verdun and elsewhere on the front—in fact matters were already being taken in hand at Verdun.[104]

The political atmosphere was poisonous after the opening of the German attack at Verdun (21 February). Rumours circulated in Paris that Joffre had ordered the abandonment of Verdun at the end of February 1916 when the Germans first attacked. Gallieni demanded to see all paperwork from the period, but Joffre had made no such order in writing, merely despatching de Castelnau to assess the situation. Gallieni launched an angry report at the Council of Ministers on 7 March—read in his usual precise way—criticising Joffre's conduct of operations over the last eighteen months and demanding ministerial control, then resigned. Gallieni was falsely suspected of wanting to launch a military takeover of the government. Poincare wrote that Gallieni was trying to force Joffre's resignation, although it is unclear whether he was specifically trying to do so. Briand knew that publication of the report would damage morale and might bring down the government. Gallieni was persuaded to remain in office until a replacement had been designated and approved.[105][106]

Rocques was appointed as his successor after it had been ensured that Joffre had no objections.[107] This would be the last attempt to assert ministerial control over the army until Clemenceau became Prime Minister late in 1917.[108]

Later life

The strain of high office having broken his already fragile health, Joseph Gallieni died in May 1916.

Gallieni's Memoirs were published posthumously in 1920.[109]

He was posthumously made

Kati was named after him.[110]
There is also a Camp Galieni in Abidjan that serves as the Ivorian Arms forces Headquarters [111]

Assessments

Clayton describes him as a dry precise man, a secular republican (views which influenced his colonial policy) but one who kept aloof from politics.[112] Herwig describes him as "formidable" and "France’s most distinguished soldier" whose "physical appearance alone commanded respect": he was of straight bearing and always wore full dress uniform.[113]

By the time Gallieni complained about Joffre's handling of Verdun, there was already public debate, much of it politically motivated, about which of them had "won" the

Basil Liddell Hart, and Henri Isselin credited him with being the guiding intelligence, a claim disputed by Captain Lyet in his book "Joffre et Gallieni a la Marne" in 1938. Ian Senior describes "Gallieni's claims" as "absolute nonsense" and Lyet's book as "an excellent analysis which convincingly refutes" them.[116] Joffre himself once remarked: "Je ne sais pas qui l'a gagnée, mais je sais bien qui l'aurait perdue." (I do not know who won it [the battle], but I know well who would have lost it.").[117] Doughty writes of the Marne: "Gallieni’s role was important, but the key concept and decisions lay with Joffre".[118] At the end of the war Clemenenceau said, “Without Galliéni, victory would have been impossible.”[119]


Ethnology

From the beginning of his colonial career he became interested in ethnology. He amassed a large collection of objects from

Museum de Toulouse
.

  • Shepherd Hat French Sudan MHNT
    Shepherd Hat
    MHNT
  • Saber and its sheath French Sudan MHNT
    Saber and its sheath
    MHNT
  • Adze, Senegal MHNT
    MHNT
  • Ankle bracelets. Culture Dan MHNT
    Ankle bracelets. Culture Dan
    MHNT
  • Pair of sandals (Sakalava people). It was exhibited at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900 MHNT
    Pair of sandals (
    MHNT

Works by Joseph Gallieni

  • Voyage au Soudan Français, 1879-1881, Paris, Hachette, 1885, avec 140 gravures dessinées sur bois par Édouard Riou
  • Deux campagnes au Soudan français, 1886-1888, Paris, Hachette, 1891
  • Trois colonnes au Tonkin, 1894-1895, 1899
  • Rapport d’ensemble sur la pacification, l’organisation et la colonisation de Madagascar, 1896-1899, Paris, Charles-Lavauzelle, 1900
  • Madagascar de 1896 à 1905, Tananarive : Impr. officielle, 1905, 2 vol.
  • Neuf ans à Madagascar, 1906
  • Mémoires du Général Galliéni - Défense de Paris (25 août - 11 septembre 1914), Paris, Payot et Cie, 1920[120]
  • Les Carnets de Galliéni, publiés par son fils Gaëtan Galliéni, avec des notes de Pierre-Barthélemy Gheusi, Paris, Albin Michel, 1932

References

  1. ^ "Gallieni, Joseph Simon | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  2. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  3. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 136–137
  4. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  5. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  6. .
  7. ^ PenseeCourtemanche (12 June 2017). "Joseph Simon Gallieni (1849-1916)". webAfriqa (in French). Retrieved 27 January 2024.
  8. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  9. ^ Herwig 2009, p. 226
  10. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  11. ^ Tuchman 1962, pp. 339–340
  12. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  13. .
  14. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  15. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  16. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 136–137
  17. .
  18. ^ Aldrich 1996, p. 63
  19. S2CID 154508657
    .
  20. ^ Aldrich 1996, p. 106
  21. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  22. ^ Aldrich 1996, p. 214
  23. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 136–137
  24. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  25. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 10, 14
  26. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 136–137
  27. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 48
  28. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 14–15
  29. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 41
  30. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 181
  31. ^ Clayton 2003, 38
  32. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 261
  33. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  34. ^ "Joseph-Simon Gallieni | Colonial administrator, Governor of Madagascar | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 23 May 2023. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
  35. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 181
  36. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  37. ^ Tuchman 1962, pp. 339–340
  38. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 340
  39. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 136-137
  40. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 82
  41. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 184 literally: "he has always made me froth"
  42. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 233
  43. ^ Clayton 2003, p. 47
  44. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 82–84
  45. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 53–57
  46. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 399
  47. ^ Tuchman 1962, pp. 364-365
  48. ^ Greenhalgh 2014, pp. 44–46
  49. ^ Greenhalgh 2014, pp. 44–46
  50. Paris had been besieged and eventually taken by the Germans in the Franco-Prussian War
  51. ^ Tuchman 1962, pp. 392–394, 397
  52. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 537
  53. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 85
  54. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 226–227
  55. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 399
  56. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 53–57
  57. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 53–57
  58. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 397
  59. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 226–227
  60. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 87
  61. ^ Tuchman 1962, pp. 408–409
  62. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 86–89
  63. ^ Herwig 2009, p. 227
  64. ^ Herwig 2009, p. 228
  65. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 87–89
  66. ^ Tuchman 1962, pp. 411–412
  67. ^ Senior 2012, p. 188
  68. ^ Tuchman 1962, pp. 416–417
  69. ^ Herwig 2009, p. 229
  70. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 87–90
  71. ^ Senior 2012, pp. 190–191
  72. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 419
  73. ^ Herwig 2009, p. 254
  74. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 111
  75. ^ Herwig 2009, p. 253
  76. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 53–57
  77. ^ Senior 2012, pp. 253–254, 375
  78. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 248, 262
  79. ^ Herwig 2009, p. 254
  80. ^ Herwig 2009, p. 263
  81. ^ Tuchman 1962, p. 161
  82. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 151
  83. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 204
  84. ^ Palmer 1998, p. 29
  85. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 226–229
  86. ^ Doughty’s account is sourced to Gallieni’s carnets — the wording implies, without explicitly saying so, that he had already sent the letter to Joffre by the time he showed it to Poincare.
  87. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 229–231
  88. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 231–232
  89. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 82–83
  90. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 82–83
  91. ^ Clayton 2003, p. 88
  92. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 226–227, 232
  93. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 232
  94. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 82–83
  95. ^ Palmer 1998, p. 47
  96. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 236–237
  97. ^ Clayton 2003, p. 88
  98. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 97–98
  99. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 284–285
  100. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 82–83
  101. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 97–98
  102. ^ Sumner 2014, p. 97
  103. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 97–99
  104. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 264, 266
  105. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 97–98
  106. ^ Doughty 2005, pp. 272, 284–285
  107. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 285
  108. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 97–98
  109. ^ Senior 2012, p. 381
  110. doi:10.1086/531320. Archived from the original
    on 21 November 2013.
  111. ^ "Ministère de la défense | République de Côte d'Ivoire".
  112. ^ Clayton 2003, pp. 215–216
  113. ^ Herwig 2009, pp. 136–137
  114. ^ Greenhalgh 2014, pp. 131–132
  115. ^ Churchill, Winston. 1923. The World Crisis
  116. ^ Senior 2012, p. 379
  117. ^ André Adamlien (1966). Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée 1(1): 254–258.
  118. ^ Doughty 2005, p. 97
  119. ^ "Mémoires du Maréchal Galliéni - Histoire - Les Éditions Blanche de Peuterey". www.peuterey-editions.com. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
  120. ^ "Mémoires du Maréchal Galliéni - Galliéni". peuterey-editions.com (in French). Retrieved 21 September 2018.

Notes

  1. ^ Marshal of France is a dignity and not a rank.

Further reading

External links