Julius Streicher
Julius Streicher | |
---|---|
Karl Holz (acting from 1942, permanent from 1944) | |
Gauleiter of Nuremberg-Fürth | |
In office 1 October 1928 – 1 March 1929 | |
Leader | Adolf Hitler |
Preceded by | Office established |
Succeeded by | Himself |
Gauleiter of Nordbayern | |
In office 2 April 1925 – 1 October 1928 | |
Leader | Adolf Hitler |
Preceded by | Office established |
Succeeded by | Himself |
Publisher of Der Stürmer | |
In office 20 April 1923 – 1 February 1945 | |
Personal details | |
Born | Execution by hanging | 12 February 1885
Political party | Nazi Party (1921–1945) |
Other political affiliations | DSP (1918–1921) |
Spouses | Kunigunde Roth
(m. 1913; died 1943)Adele Tappe (m. 1945) |
Children | Lothar Elmar |
Parent(s) | Friedrich Streicher Anna Weiss |
Known for | Publisher of propaganda |
Signature | Executed |
Conviction(s) | Crimes against humanity |
Trial | Nuremberg trials |
Criminal penalty | Death |
Part of a series on |
Antisemitism |
---|
Category |
Julius Streicher (12 February 1885 – 16 October 1946) was a member of the
After the war, Streicher was convicted of
Early life
Streicher was born in Fleinhausen, in the Kingdom of Bavaria, one of nine children of the teacher Friedrich Streicher and his wife Anna (née Weiss). He worked as an elementary school teacher, as his father had. In 1913, Streicher married Kunigunde Roth, a baker's daughter, in Nuremberg. They had two sons, Lothar (born 1915) and Elmar (born 1918).[3]
Streicher joined the
Early politics
Streicher was heavily influenced by the endemic
By the end of 1919, the DSP had branches in
Nazism
In 1921, Streicher left the German Socialist Party and joined the Nazi Party,
It was on a winter's day in 1922. I sat unknown in the large hall of the Bürgerbräuhaus ... suspense was in the air. Everyone seemed tense with excitement, with anticipation. Then suddenly a shout. "Hitler is coming!" Thousands of men and women jumped to their feet as if propelled by a mysterious power ... they shouted, "Heil Hitler! Heil Hitler!" ... And then he stood on the podium ... Then I knew that in this Adolf Hitler was someone extraordinary ... Here was one who could wrest out of the German spirit and the German heart the power to break the chains of slavery. Yes! Yes! This man spoke as a messenger from heaven at a time when the gates of hell were opening to pull down everything. And when he finally finished, and while the crowd raised the roof with the singing of the "Deutschland" song, I rushed to the stage.[22]
Nearly religiously converted by this speech, Streicher believed from this point forward that, "it was his destiny to serve Hitler".[23]
In May 1923 Streicher founded the sensationalist newspaper Der Stürmer (The Stormer, or, loosely, The Attacker).[24] From the outset, the chief aim of the paper was to promulgate antisemitic propaganda; the first issue had an excerpt that stated, "As long as the Jew is in the German household, we will be Jewish slaves. Therefore he must go."[25] Historian Richard J. Evans describes the newspaper:
[Der Stürmer] rapidly established itself as the place where screaming headlines introduced the most rabid attacks on Jews, full of sexual innuendo, racist caricatures, made-up accusations of ritual murder, and titillating, semi-pornographic stories of Jewish men seducing innocent German girls.[17]
In November 1923, Streicher participated in Hitler's first effort to seize power, the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. Streicher marched with Hitler in the front row of the would-be revolutionaries. As a result of his participation in the attempted Putsch, Streicher was suspended from teaching.[26] His loyalty to the cause earned him Hitler's lifelong trust and protection; in the years that followed, Streicher would be one of the dictator's few true intimates. Streicher, Rudolf Hess, Emil Maurice,[27] and Dietrich Eckart[28] were the only Nazis mentioned in Mein Kampf;[19] in the book, Hitler praised him for subordinating the German Socialist Party to the Nazi Party, a move Hitler believed was essential to the success of the National Socialists.[29] When the Nazi Party was banned in the aftermath of the failed coup attempt, Streicher in early 1924 joined the Greater German People's Community (Großdeutsche Volksgemeinschaft, GVG) a Nazi front organization established by Alfred Rosenberg. Streicher challenged Rosenberg's weak leadership and on 9 July 1924 was elected as Chairman of the GVG in his place.[30] When Hitler was released from his prison sentence at Landsberg am Lech on 20 December 1924 for his role in the Putsch, Streicher was one of the few remaining followers waiting for him at his Munich apartment.[31] Hitler – who would value loyalty and faithfulness very highly throughout his life – remained loyal to Streicher even when he landed in trouble with the Nazi hierarchy. Although Hitler would allow suppression of Der Stürmer at times when it was politically important for the Nazis to be seen as respectable, and although he would admit that Streicher was not a very good administrator, he never withdrew his personal loyalty.[7]
In April 1924, Streicher was elected to the Bavarian
Rise of Der Stürmer
Beginning in 1924, Streicher used
Streicher's opponents complained to authorities that Der Stürmer violated a statute against religious offense with his constant promulgation of the "
Streicher orchestrated his early campaigns against Jews to make the most extreme possible claims, short of violating a law that might get the paper shut down. He insisted in the pages of his newspaper that the Jews had caused the worldwide
One of Streicher's constant themes was the sexual violation of ethnic German women by Jews, a subject which he used to publish semi-
Streicher's publishing firm also released three antisemitic books for children, including the 1938
Streicher did not limit his vituperative attacks to Jews themselves but also launched them against those he perceived as insufficiently hostile towards Jews. For example, he dismissed Mussolini as a Jewish lackey for not being anti-Semitic enough.[46] Between 1935 and the end of the Second World War, upwards of 6,500 persons were identified and denounced in Der Stürmer for not being sufficiently anti-Semitic.[47]
Streicher in power
In July 1932, Streicher was elected as a deputy of the
Streicher later claimed that he was only "indirectly responsible" for passage of the anti-Jewish Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and that he felt slighted because he was not directly consulted. Perhaps epitomizing the "profound anti-intellectualism" of the Nazi Party, Streicher once opined that, "If the brains of all university professors were put at one end of the scale, and the brains of the Führer at the other, which end do you think would tip?"[52]
Streicher was ordered to take part in the establishment of the
In August 1938, Streicher ordered that the Grand Synagogue of Nuremberg be destroyed as part of his contribution to Kristallnacht. Streicher later claimed that his decision was based on his disapproval of its architectural design, which in his opinion "disfigured the beautiful German townscape."[55]
Fall from power
Author and journalist John Gunther described Streicher as "the worst of the anti-Semites",[56] and his excesses brought condemnation even from other Nazis. Streicher's behaviour was viewed as so irresponsible that he was embarrassing the party leadership;[57] chief among his enemies in Hitler's hierarchy was Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, who loathed him and later claimed that he forbade his own staff to read Der Stürmer.[58]
Despite his special relationship with Hitler, after 1938 Streicher's position began to unravel. He was accused of keeping Jewish property seized after Kristallnacht in November 1938; he was charged with spreading untrue stories about Göring – such as alleging that he was impotent and that his daughter Edda was conceived by
When Germany surrendered to the Allied armies in May 1945, Streicher said later, he decided not to commit suicide. Instead, he married his former secretary, Adele Tappe.[63] Days later, on 23 May 1945, Streicher was captured in the town of Waidring, Austria, by a group of American officers led by Major Henry Plitt of the 101st Airborne Division.[64][g]
Trial and execution
During his trial, Streicher claimed that he had been mistreated by Allied soldiers after his capture.
Most of the evidence against Streicher came from his numerous speeches and articles over the years.[69] In essence, prosecutors contended that Streicher's articles and speeches were so incendiary that he was an accessory to murder, and therefore as culpable as those who actually ordered the mass extermination of Jews. They further argued that he kept up his antisemitic propaganda even after he was aware that Jews were being slaughtered.[70]
Streicher was acquitted of
For his 25 years of speaking, writing and preaching hatred of the Jews, Streicher was widely known as 'Jew-Baiter Number One.' In his speeches and articles, week after week, month after month, he infected the German mind with the virus of anti-Semitism, and incited the German people to active persecution. ... Streicher's incitement to murder and extermination at the time when Jews in the East were being killed under the most horrible conditions clearly constitutes persecution on political and racial grounds in connection with war crimes, as defined by the Charter, and constitutes a crime against humanity.[2]
He, along with Hans Fritzsche, were the first persons to be indicted for what would later be classified as incitement to genocide,[71] though Fritzsche was acquitted at trial.
During his trial, Streicher displayed for the last time the flair for courtroom theatrics that had made him famous in the 1920s. He answered questions from his own defence attorney with diatribes against Jews, the Allies, and the court itself, and was frequently silenced by the court officers. Streicher was largely shunned by all of the other Nuremberg defendants. He also peppered his testimony with references to passages of Jewish texts he had so often carefully selected and inserted into the pages of Der Stürmer.[72]
Streicher was
The consensus among eyewitnesses was that Streicher did not receive a quick death from
Streicher's body, along with those of the other nine executed men and the corpse of Hermann Göring, was cremated at Ostfriedhof (Munich) and the ashes were scattered in the Isar River.[77]
In literature
Streicher is portrayed in detail, as a criminal psychopath in Philip Kerr's detective novel The Pale Criminal (1990).[78]
References
Informational notes
- ^ This system included socialist ideas, such as the takeover of the financial sector by the state, and the cutting-back of the "interest-based economy".
- ^ According to Streicher, his dislike of Jews stemmed from an incident when he was but five years old, during which he witnessed his mother weeping after claiming to have been cheated by the Jewish owner of a fabric shop.[21]
- slanderousattacks continued, and lawsuits followed. Like Fleischmann, other outraged German Jews defeated Streicher in court, but his goal was not necessarily legal victory; he wanted the widest possible dissemination of his message, which press coverage often provided. The rules of the court provided Streicher with an arena to humiliate his opponents, and he characterized the inevitable courtroom loss as a badge of honor.
- ^ Streicher also combed the pages of the Talmud and the Old Testament in search of passages potentially depicting Judaism as harsh or cruel.[43] In 1929, this close study of Jewish scripture helped convict Streicher in a case known as "The Great Nuremberg Ritual Murder Trial." His familiarity with Jewish text was proof to the court that his attacks were religious in nature; Streicher was found guilty and imprisoned for two months. In Germany, press reaction to the trial was highly critical of Streicher; but the Gauleiter was greeted after his conviction by hundreds of cheering supporters, and within months Nazi Party membership surged to its highest levels yet.[citation needed]
- ^ Streicher's characteristic behaviour is portrayed in the 1944 Hollywood film The Hitler Gang.
- ^ Streicher was a poet, whose work was described as "quite attractive", and he painted watercolours as a hobby. He had a strong sexual appetite, which occasionally got him into trouble with the Nazi hierarchy.[7]
- ^ At first Streicher claimed to be a painter named "Joseph Sailer", but, misunderstanding Plitt's poor German, he came to believe the latter already knew who he was, and quickly admitted his identity.[65]
- ^ See the LA Times article commemorating Kingsbury-Smith at: J. Kingsbury-Smith; Honored Journalist
Citations
- ^ Zelnhefer, Der Stürmer.
- ^ a b c Avalon Project, Judgement: Streicher.
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, p. 5.
- ^ Snyder 1976, p. 336.
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, p. 6.
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, p. 8.
- ^ a b c Evans 2003, p. 189.
- ^ Bracher 1970, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Longerich 2010, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Kershaw 2000, pp. 137–138.
- ^ Kershaw 2000, pp. 138–139.
- ^ a b Bracher 1970, p. 93.
- ^ a b Kershaw 2000, p. 138.
- ^ Franz-Willing 1962, p. 89.
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, pp. 12–14.
- ^ Rees 2017, p. 22.
- ^ a b Evans 2003, p. 188.
- ^ Rees 2017, p. 23.
- ^ a b c Gunther 1940, p. 76.
- ^ Friedman 1998, p. 300.
- ^ Rees 2017, p. 21.
- ^ Dolibois 2000, p. 114.
- ^ Rees 2017, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, p. 52.
- ^ Zentner & Bedürftig 1991, p. 921.
- ^ Mein Kampf, 1925 – same line as Hess
- ^ Mein Kampf volume 2, 1926 – dedication at the end
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 124.
- ^ Miller & Schulz 2021, p. 353.
- ^ Fest 1974, p. 219.
- ^ Zentner & Bedürftig 1991, p. 922.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 163–164.
- ^ Keß 2003, p. 250.
- ^ Bartrop & Grimm 2019, p. 270.
- ^ Snyder 1989, pp. 47–51.
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, pp. 143–150.
- ^ Wistrich 2001, p. 42.
- ^ Welch 2002, p. 75.
- ^ Koonz 2005, pp. 232–233.
- ^ Fischer 1995, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Welch 2002, p. 76–77.
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, pp. 110, 208–214.
- ^ Snyder 1989, p. 50.
- ^ Kershaw 2001, p. 320.
- ^ Bernhard 2019, pp. 97–114.
- ^ Bytwerk 2004, p. 141.
- ^ Miller & Schulz 2021, p. 356.
- ^ Nadler 1969, p. 5.
- ^ Miller & Schulz 2021, p. 343.
- ^ Miller & Schulz 2021, p. 367.
- ^ Wall 1997, p. 98.
- ^ Kater, Mommsen & Papen 1999, p. 151.
- ^ Steigmann-Gall 2003, pp. 17–24.
- ^ Kershaw 2001, p. 132.
- ^ Gunther 1940, p. 61.
- ^ Snyder 1989, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Maser 2000, p. 282.
- ^ Snyder 1989, pp. 47, 50–53.
- ^ Bayerische Landesbibliothek, Julius Streicher.
- ^ Wistrich 1995, pp. 251–252.
- ^ Davidson 1997, p. 43.
- ^ Davidson 1997, p. 44.
- ^ Tofahrn 2008, p. 163.
- ^ USHMM, "Henry Plitt Interview".
- ^ Bytwerk 2001, p. 42.
- ^ Weitz 1992, p. 332.
- ^ Snyder 1989, pp. 54–56.
- ^ Snyder 1989, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Snyder 1989, p. 57.
- ^ Timmermann 2006, pp. 827–828.
- ^ Conot 2000, pp. 381–389.
- ^ Wistrich 1995, p. 252.
- ^ Conot 2000, p. 506.
- ^ Radlmeier 2001, pp. 345–346.
- ^ Duff 1999, p. 130.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 393.
- ^ Kerr 1993, pp. 385–392.
Bibliography
- "Avalon Project – Yale University". Judgement: Streicher. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- Bartrop, Paul R.; Grimm, Eve E. (2019). Perpetrating the Holocaust: Leaders, Enablers, and Collaborators. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-44085-896-3.
- Bayerische Landesbibliothek. "Julius Streicher". Retrieved 10 January 2021.
- Bernhard, Patrick (7 February 2019). "The Great Divide? Notions of Racism in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: New Answers to an Old Problem". S2CID 150519628. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
- Bracher, Karl-Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure, and Effects of National Socialism. New York: Praeger Publishers. ASIN B001JZ4T16.
- Bullock, Alan (1962). Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. New York: ASIN B0016LG3PS.
- Bytwerk, Randall L. (2001). Julius Streicher: Nazi Editor of the Notorious Anti-Semitic Newspaper Der Stürmer. New York: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1156-1.
- Bytwerk, Randall L. (2004). Bending Spines: The Propagandas of Nazi Germany and the German Democratic Republic. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0870137105.
- Conot, Robert E. (2000). Justice at Nuremberg. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 978-0-88184-032-2.
- Davidson, Eugene (1997). The Trial of the Germans: An Account of the Twenty-two Defendants before the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-82621-139-2.
- Dolibois, John (2000). Pattern of Circles: An Ambassador's Story. London and Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-702-6.
- Duff, Charles (1999). A Handbook on Hanging. New York: NYRB Classics. ISBN 978-0-94032-267-7.
- ISBN 0-14-303469-3.
- Fest, Joachim (1974). Hitler. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc. ISBN 0-15-141650-8.
- Fischer, Klaus (1995). Nazi Germany: A New History. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-82640-797-9.
- Franz-Willing, Georg (1962). Die Hitlerbewegung: Der Ursprung, 1919–1922 (in German). Hamburg; Berlin: R. v. Decker's Verlag, G. Schenck. ASIN B002PZ024M.
- Friedman, Towiah (1998). The Two Antisemitic Nazi-Leaders: Alfred Rosenberg and Julius Streicher at the Nuremberg Trial in 1946. Haifa, Israel: Institute of Documentation in Israel for the Investigation of Nazi War Crimes. ASIN B0000CPBZE.
- Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers.
- Höffkes, Karl (1986). Hitlers Politische Generale. Die Gauleiter des Dritten Reiches: ein biographisches Nachschlagewerk. Grabert-Verlag, Tübingen. ISBN 3-87847-163-7.
- Kater, Michael; Mommsen, Hans; Papen, Patricia von (1999). Beseitigung des jüdischen Einflusses: Antisemitische Forschung, Eliten und Karrieren im Nationalsozialismus (in German). Frankfurt am Main; New York: Campus Verlag. ISBN 978-3-59336-098-0.
- ISBN 978-0-140-23170-0.
- ISBN 978-0-39332-035-0.
- Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler: 1936–1945, Nemesis. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-39332-252-1.
- Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-33761-7.
- Keß, Bettina (2003). "Das Konstrukt "Mainfranken": Regional Identität als Mittel zur Machtstabilisation und Standortsicherung". In Silke Göttsch-Elten; Christel Köhle-Hezinger (eds.). Komplexe Welt: Kulturelle Ordunungssysteme als Orientierung. Münster: Waxmann Verlag GmbH. ISBN 3-8309-1300-1.
- Kingsbury-Smith, Joseph (16 October 1946). "The Execution of Nazi War Criminals". University of Missouri–Kansas City. International News Service (INS). Retrieved 16 April 2018.
- Koonz, Claudia (2005). The Nazi Conscience. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01842-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280436-5.
- Manvell, Roger; Fraenkel, Heinrich (2011). Goering. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61608-109-6.
- Maser, Werner (2000). Hermann Göring. Hitlers janusköpfiger Paladin: Die politische Biographie (in German). Berlin: Edition q. ISBN 978-3-86124-509-4.
- Miller, Michael D.; Schulz, Andreas (2012). Gauleiter: The Regional Leaders of the Nazi Party and Their Deputies, 1925–1945, Vol. 1. R. James Bender Publishing. ISBN 978-1-932970-21-0.
- Miller, Michael D.; Schulz, Andreas (2021). Gauleiter: The Regional Leaders of the Nazi Party and Their Deputies, 1925–1945. Vol. 3 (Fritz Sauckel – Hans Zimmermann). Fonthill Media. ISBN 978-1-781-55826-3.
- Nadler, Fritz (1969). Eine Stadt im Schatten Streichers (in German). Nürnberg: Fränkische Verlagsanstalt und Buchdruckerei. ISBN 978-3871912665.
- Overy, Richard J. (1984). Goering: The Iron Man. London: Routledge. ASIN B01DMTG9N2.
- Radlmeier, Steffen (2001). Der Nürnberger Lernprozess: von Kriegsverbrechern und Starreportern (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Eichborn. ISBN 978-3-82184-725-2.
- Rees, Laurence (2017). The Holocaust: A New History. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-61039-844-2.
- Roos, Daniel (2014). Julius Streicher und "Der Stürmer" 1923–1945 (in German). Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. ISBN 978-3-506-77267-1.
- Ruault, Franco (2006). "Neuschöpfer des deutschen Volkes" Julius Streicher im Kampf gegen "Rassenschande". Beiträge zur Dissidenz (in German). Vol. 18. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-54499-0.
- Snyder, Louis L. (1976). Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. London: Robert Hale. ISBN 978-1-56924-917-8.
- Snyder, Louis L. (1989). Hitler's Elite: Biographical Sketches of Nazis Who Shaped the Third Reich. New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-87052-738-8.
- Steigmann-Gall, Richard (2003). The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. New York; London: ISBN 978-0-52182-371-5.
- Timmermann, Wibke Kristin (2006). "Incitement in international criminal law" (PDF). International Review of the Red Cross. 88 (864).
- Tofahrn, Klaus W. (2008). Das Dritte Reich und der Holocaust (in German). Frankfurt am Main; New York: Peter Lang GmbH. ISBN 978-3-63157-702-8.
- USHMM. "Julius Streicher: Biography". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
- Wall, Donald D. (1997). Nazi Germany and World War II. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing. ISBN 978-0-31409-360-8.
- Weitz, John (1992). Hitler's Diplomat: The Life And Times of Joachim von Ribbentrop. New York: ISBN 0-395-62152-6.
- Welch, David (2002). The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-41511-910-8.
- Wistrich, Robert (1995). Who's Who In Nazi Germany. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-41511-888-0.
- Wistrich, Robert (2001). Hitler and the Holocaust. New York: Modern Library Chronicles. ISBN 0-679-64222-6.
- Zelnhefer, Siegfried (5 September 2008). "Der Stürmer. Deutsches Wochenblatt zum Kampf um die Wahrheit". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 28 April 2019.
- Zeller, Tom (2007). "The Nuremberg Hangings – Not So Smooth Either (16 January 2007)". The New York Times.
- Zentner, Christian; Bedürftig, Friedemann (1991). ISBN 0-02-897500-6.
Further reading
- Aronsfeld, C. C. (1985). "'Revisionist historians' whitewash Julius Streicher". Patterns of Prejudice. 19 (3): 38–39. .
External links
- USHMM. "Henry Plitt Interview". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
- Spiegel TV short biography (German)
- Caricatures from Der Stürmer
- Der Giftpilz ("The Poison Mushroom")
- Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 12 Transcript of the testimony of Julius Streicher
- Newspaper clippings about Julius Streicher in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- Information about Julius Streicher in the Reichstag database