Jumping spider
Jumping spiders Temporal range:
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Adult female Platycryptus undatus | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
Class: | Arachnida |
Order: | Araneae |
Infraorder: | Araneomorphae |
Family: | Salticidae Blackwall, 1841 |
Genera | |
Diversity | |
600+ genera, 6000+ species | |
Jumping spiders are a group of
Description
Jumping spiders are among the easiest to distinguish from similar spider families because of the shape of the
The jumping spiders, unlike the other families, have faces that are roughly rectangular surfaces perpendicular to their direction of motion. In effect this means that their forward-looking, anterior eyes are on "flat faces", as shown in the photographs. Their eye pattern is the clearest single identifying characteristic. They have eight eyes, as illustrated.[3][4] Most diagnostic are the front row of four eyes, in which the anterior median pair are more dramatically prominent than any other spider eyes apart from the posterior median eyes of the Deinopidae. There is, however, a radical functional difference between the major (anterior median) eyes of Salticidae and the major (posterior median) eyes of the Deinopidae; the large posterior eyes of Deinopidae are adapted mainly to vision in dim light, whereas the large anterior eyes of Salticidae are adapted to detailed, three-dimensional vision for purposes of estimating the range, direction, and nature of potential prey, permitting the spider to direct its attacking leaps with great precision. The anterior lateral eyes, though large, are smaller than the anterior median eyes and provide a wider forward field of vision.
The rear row of four eyes may be described as strongly bent, or as being rearranged into two rows, with two large posterior lateral eyes being the furthest back. They serve for lateral vision. The posterior median eyes also have been shifted out laterally, almost as far as the posterior lateral eyes. They are usually much smaller than the posterior lateral eyes and there is doubt about whether they are at all functional in many species.
The body length of jumping spiders generally ranges from 1 to 25 mm (0.04–0.98 in).[3][5] The largest is Hyllus giganteus,[5] while other genera with relatively large species include Phidippus, Philaeus and Plexippus.[6]
In addition to using their silk for safety lines while jumping, they also build silken "pup tents", where they take shelter from bad weather and sleep at night.[7] They molt in these shelters, build and store egg cases in them, and also spend the winter in them.[8]
Their body's sensory hairs are able to detect airborne acoustic stimuli up to 3 m away.[9]
Vision
Jumping spiders have four pairs of eyes; three secondary pairs that are fixed and a principal pair that is movable.
The posterior median eyes are vestigial in many species, but in some primitive subfamilies, they are comparable in size with the other secondary eyes and help to detect motion.[10] While unable to form images, the reduced pair of eyes is thought to have a role similar to that of insect ocelli by receiving light from the sky. The photoreceptors in the other secondary pairs are almost exclusively green-sensitive, but the posterior median eyes have two visual opsins different from those in all the other eyes, sensitive to blue and UV light.[11]
The posterior lateral eyes (PLEs) are wide-angle motion detectors that sense motions from the side and behind. Combined with the other eyes, PLEs give the spider a near 360° view of the world.
The anterior lateral eyes (ALEs) have the best visual acuity of the secondary eyes.[12] They are able to distinguish some details, as well, and without them, no "looming response" can be triggered by motion.[13] Even with all the other pairs covered, jumping spiders in a study could still detect, stalk, and attack flies, using their ALEs only, which are also sufficiently widely spaced to provide stereoscopic vision.[14]
The
The anterior median eyes have high resolution (11
Behavior
Jumping
Many other arthropods are known to jump, including grasshoppers, fleas, leafhoppers, and sand fleas. Jumping spiders are different from these animals because they are able to make accurate, targeted jumps. Jumps are used for navigation, to escape danger, and to catch prey. Jumping spiders' well-developed internal hydraulic system extends their limbs by altering the pressure of their body fluid (hemolymph) within them.[25] This enables the spiders to jump without having large muscular legs like a grasshopper. The maximum horizontal jump distance varies greatly between species, with some capable of jumping two or three body lengths, while the jump of an individual Colonus puerperus was measured at 38 times the body length.[26] The accuracy of their jumps is mediated by their well-developed visual system and the ability to quickly process visual information to tailor each jump.[27][28] When a jumping spider moves from place to place, and especially just before it jumps, it tethers a filament of silk (or 'dragline') to whatever it is standing on.[3][5] This dragline provides a mechanical aid to jumping, including braking and stabilization[27][29] and if the jump should fail, the spider climbs back up the dragline.[8]
Hunting
The hunting behaviour of the Salticidae is confusingly varied compared to that of most spiders in other families.[30] Salticids hunt diurnally as a rule, which is consistent with their highly developed visual system. When it detects potential prey, a jumping spider typically begins orienting itself by swiveling its cephalothorax to bring the anterior median eyes to bear. It then moves its abdomen into line with its cephalothorax. After that, it might spend some time inspecting the object of its attention and determining whether a camouflaged or doubtful item of prey is promising, before it starts to stalk slowly forward. When close enough, the spider pauses to attach a dragline, then springs onto the prey.
Many variations on the theme and many surprising aspects exist. For one, salticids do not necessarily follow a straight path in approaching prey. They may follow a circuitous course, sometimes even a course that takes the hunter through regions from which the prey is not visible. Such complex adaptive behaviour is hard to reconcile with an organism that has such a tiny brain, but some jumping spiders, in particular some species of Portia, can negotiate long detours from one bush down to the ground, then up the stem of another bush to capture a prey item on a particular leaf.[31] Such behaviour still is the subject of research.[30]
Some salticid species are continually on the move, stopping periodically to look around for prey, which they then stalk immediately. Others spend more time scanning their surroundings from one position, actively stalking any prey they detect. Members of the genus Phaeacius take that strategy to extremes; they sit on a tree trunk, facing downwards and rarely do any stalking, but simply lunge down on any prey items that pass close before them.[30]
Some Salticidae specialise in particular classes of prey, such as
Some of the most surprising hunting behaviours occur among the araneophagous Salticidae, and vary greatly in method. Many of the spider-hunting species quite commonly attack other spiders, whether fellow salticids or not, in the same way as any other prey, but some kinds resort to web invasion; nonspecialists such as Phidippus audax sometimes attack prey ensnared in webs, basically in acts of kleptoparasitism; sometimes they leap onto and eat the web occupant itself, or simply walk over the web for that purpose.
Salticidae in the genera
The foregoing examples present the Salticidae as textbook examples of active hunters; they would hardly seem likely to build webs other than those used in reproductive activities, and in fact, most species really do not build webs to catch prey. However, exceptions occur, though even those that do build capture webs generally also go hunting like other salticids. Some Portia species, for example, spin capture webs that are functional, though not as impressive as some orb webs of the Araneidae; Portia webs are of an unusual funnel shape and apparently adapted to the capture of other spiders. Spartaeus species, though, largely capture moths in their webs. In their review of the ethology of the Salticidae, Richman and Jackson speculate on whether such web building is a relic of the evolution of this family from web-building ancestors.[30]
In hunting, the Salticidae also use their silk as a tether to enable them to reach prey that otherwise would be inaccessible. For example, by advancing towards the prey to less than the jumping distance, then retreating and leaping in an arc at the end of the tether line, many species can leap onto prey on vertical or even on inverted surfaces, which of course would not be possible without such a tether.
Having made contact with the prey, hunting Salticidae administer a bite to inject rapid-acting venom that gives the victim little time to react.[32] In this respect, they resemble the Mimetidae and Thomisidae, families that ambush prey that often are larger than the predator, and they do so without securing the victim with silk; they accordingly must immobilise it immediately and their venom is adapted accordingly.
Diet
Although jumping spiders are generally
The female of the Southeast Asian species Toxeus magnus feeds its offspring with a milky, nutritious fluid for the first 40 days of their lives.[35]
Reproduction
Courtship and mating behavior
Jumping spiders conduct complex, visual courtship displays using movements and physical bodily attributes. A form of sexual dimorphism, the males possess plumose hairs, colored or iridescent hairs (particularly pronounced in the peacock spiders), front leg fringes, structures on other legs, and other, often bizarre, modifications. These characteristics are used in a courtship "dance" in which the colored or iridescent parts of the body are displayed. In addition to displaying colors, jumping spiders perform complex sliding, vibrational, or zigzag movements to attract females. Many males have auditory signals, as well. These amplified sounds presented to the females resemble buzzes or drum rolls.[36] Species vary significantly in visual and vibratory components of courtship.[37] The ability to sense UV light (see Vision section) is used by at least one species, Cosmophasis umbratica, in courtship behavior,[38][39] though it is reasonable to assume that many other species exhibit this characteristic. Cosmophasis umbratica males have markings that are only visible in UV and the females use the markings for mate choice.[40]
If receptive to the male, the female assumes a passive, crouching position. In some species, the female may vibrate her palps or abdomen. The male then extends his front legs towards the female to touch her. If the female remains receptive, the male climbs on her back and inseminates her with his palps.[41]
Consequences of sexual dimorphism
Maintaining colorful ornamentation may seem strictly beneficial to sexual selection, yet costs to maintain such distinguishing characteristics occur.[40] While colorful or UV-reflecting individuals may attract more female spiders, it can also increase the risk of predation.[16]
Taxonomy
Classification within the spiders (Araneae)[42] | |||||||||
|
The
A 2015 revision of the Salticidae family divided it into seven subfamilies:[45]
- OnomastinaeMaddison, 2015 – 1 extant genus
- Asemoneinae Maddison, 2015 – 4 extant genera (Hindumanes, originally placed here, was moved to Lyssomaninae[46])
- Lyssomaninae Blackwall, 1877 – 3 extant genera (including Hindumanes)
- Spartaeinae Wanless, 1984 – 29 extant genera in 3 tribes
- Eupoinae Maddison, 2015 – 3 extant genera
- Hisponinae Simon, 1901 – 9 extant genera
- Salticinae Blackwall, 1841 – about 540 extant genera in 27 tribes
The Salticinae subfamily is the most diverse, comprising over 90% of the known species of jumping spiders.[45]
Habitat
Jumping spiders live in a variety of habitats.
Models for mimicry
Some small insects are thought to have evolved an appearance or behavioural traits that resemble those of jumping spiders and this is suspected to prevent their predation, specifically from jumping spiders. Some examples appear to be provided by patterns on the wings of some tephritid flies,[48][49] the nymph of a fulgorid[50] and possibly some moths.[51]
Fossils
Very few jumping spider
See also
References
- ^ "Currently valid spider genera and species". World Spider Catalog. Bern, Switzerland: Natur Historisches Museum, Bern. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
- ^ Peng, Xian-Jin; Tso, I-Min & Li, Shu-Qiang (2002). "Five new and four newly recorded species of jumping spiders from Taiwan (Araneae: Salticidae)" (PDF). Zoological Studies. 41 (1): 1–12. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
- ^ a b c d
Richman, D.B.; Edwards, G.B. & Cutler, B. (2005). "Salticidae". In Ubick, D.; Paquin, P.; Cushing, P.E. & Roth, V. (eds.). Spiders of North America: An identification manual. American Arachnological Society. pp. 205–216. ISBN 978-0-9771439-0-0.
- ^ a b
OCLC 2896911.
- ^ a b c "Watch the world's biggest jumping spider make a leap". BBC Earth. 17 August 2017. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
- ^ Macík, Stanislav (27 August 2012). "Phiddipus regius: the Jewel between Spider Predators". arachnos.eu. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
- ^ Gabrielson, M., & Roberts, A. (2022). Jumping spider. Getting Eight Legs Up – Learning More About Our Forest’s Jumping Spiders. https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd1057184.pdf
- ^ ISBN 978-0-674-07431-6.
- PMID 27746028.
- ^ "short communication fields of view of the eyes – The Company of Biologists Limited 1985" (PDF). Retrieved 13 August 2013.
- ^ Functional Properties of Opsins and their Contribution to Light-Sensing Physiology
- PMID 22750020.
- ^ "Jeepers, Peepers: Why Spiders Have So Many Eyes". Livescience.com. 17 October 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
- PMID 20581266.
- PMID 17998517. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
- ^ a b Harland, D.P. & Jackson, R.R. (2000). "'Eight-legged cats' and how they see – a review of recent research on jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)". Cimbebasia. 16: 231–240. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
- ^ a b
Peaslee, A.G. & Wilson, G. (May 1989). "Spectral sensitivity in jumping spiders (Araneae, Salticidae)". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 164 (3): 359–63. S2CID 21329083.
- ^ "Jumping Spiders' Unique Vision Revealed". Livescience.com. 26 January 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
- S2CID 8039638.
- ^ Filters let jumping spiders spot flashy mates
- ^ (Lim & Li, 2005).
- PMID 5351425.
- ^ "Topic: Scanning eyes in molluscs and arthropods". Mapoflife.org. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
- PMID 5351426.
- ^ Parry, D.A.; Brown, R.H.J (1959). "The jumping mechanism of salticid spiders". Journal of Experimental Biology. 36 (4): 654–664.
- ^ Hill, D.E. (2018). "The jumping behavior of jumping spiders: a review" (PDF). Peckhamia. 167 (1): 1–8.
- ^ a b Hill, D.E. (15 December 2006). "Targeted jumps by salticid spiders (Araneae, Salticidae, Phidippus)" (PDF). The Peckham Society. v. 9.
- ISBN 978-0-19-993316-7.
- ^ Chen, Y.; Ciao, C.; Tsai, F.; Chi, K. (2013). "More than a safety line: jump-stabilizing silk of salticids". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 10:20130572.
- ^ a b c d e f Richman, David B.; Jackson, Robert R. (1992). "A review of the ethology of jumping spiders (Araneae, Salticidae)" (PDF). Bull. Br. Arachnol. Soc. 9 (2): 33–37.
- S2CID 53180070.
- ^ National Geographic video of capture of bee by jumping spider. Youtube.com (27 February 2009). Retrieved on 4 May 2013.
- .
- ^ Milius, Susan (30 August 2008). "Vegetarian Spider". Science News. Retrieved 9 April 2009.
- PMID 30498127.
- PMID 14555743.
- ^ Morelle, Rebecca (2 May 2008) " Study sheds light on spider sex", BBC News.
- .
- ^ (Lim, Matthew L. M., and Daiqin Li. "Courtship and Male-Male Agonistic Behaviour of Comsophasis Umbratica Simon, an Ornate Jumping Spider (Araneae: Salticidae)." The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology (2004): 52(2): 435–448. National University of Singapore. Web. 20 September 2015.)
- ^ a b Bulbert, Matthew W., James C. O'Hanlon, Shane Zappettini, Shichang Zhang, and Daiqin Li. "Sexually Selected UV Signals in the Tropical Ornate Jumping Spider, Cosmophasis umbratica, May Incur Costs from Predation." Ecology and Evolution (2015): 5(4): 914-920. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Web. 20 September 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-674-07431-6.
- S2CID 35535038.
- ISSN 0003-0090.
- ^ S2CID 239035463.
- ^ a b
Maddison, Wayne P. (November 2015). "A phylogenetic classification of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)". Journal of Arachnology. 43 (3): 231–292. S2CID 85680279.
- PMID 29245556.
- ^ Wanless, F. R. (1975). "Spiders of the family Salticidae from the upper slopes of Everest and Makalu". Bulletin of the British Arachnological Society. 3 (5): 132–136.
- .
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- ^ Hill, David Edwin (7 October 2009). "Salticidae of the Antarctic land bridge" (PDF). Peckhamia.
Further reading
- Forster, L.M. (1982). "Vision and prey-catching strategies in jumping spiders". American Scientist. 70 (2): 165–175. Bibcode:1982AmSci..70..165F.
- Jackson, R.R. (1982). "The behavior of communicating in jumping spiders (Salticidae)". In Witt, P.; Rovner, J. (eds.). Spider Communication Mechanisms and Ecological Significance. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 213–247. OCLC 951407473.
- Elias, D.O.; Mason, A.C.; Maddison, W.P.; Hoy, R.R. (2003). "Seismic signals in a courting male jumping spider (Araneae: Salticidae)". Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (22): 4029–4039. PMID 14555743.
- Lim, M.L.M.; Li, D. (2005). "Extreme ultraviolet sexual dimorphism in jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 89 (3): 397–406. .
- Maddison, Wayne P.; Beattie, Imara; Marathe, Kiran; Ng, Paul Y. C.; Kanesharatnam, Nilani; Benjamin, Suresh P.; Kunte, Krushnamegh (16 December 2020). "A phylogenetic and taxonomic review of baviine jumping spiders (Araneae, Salticidae, Baviini)". ZooKeys. 1004: 27–97. PMC 7758311.
External links
- Asian jumping spiders and photo references
- Comprehensive resource on the morphology and taxonomy of jumping spiders (Salticidae): www.jumping-spiders.com
- Global Species Database of Salticidae
- Video of a jumping spider's mating behavior
- High-Speed Photography of Jumping Spiders in Mid-air
- PBS Be Smart Video About Jumping Spider Vision
- Close-Up Video of Transparent Jumping Spider Captures Its Tube-Like Eyes Moving
- World Spider Catalog
- Jumping Spiders of NW-Europe
- Jumping spiders of Australia
- American Jumping Spiders – 70 Species Videos (includes introduction to salticids, predation, mating, and other behaviors)
- Movies of Habronattus courtship behavior
- The Australian Faunal Directory taxonomic classification of Australian salticids