Königsberg
Königsberg was a port city on the south eastern corner of the Baltic Sea. It is today known as Kaliningrad and is part of Russia. | |
Coordinates | 54°42′41.3″N 20°30′33.5″E / 54.711472°N 20.509306°E |
---|---|
History | |
Founded | 1255 |
Abandoned | 1945 |
Associated with | Sambians, Germans, Poles, Jews, Russians, Lithuanians |
Events | World War II |
Site notes | |
Ownership | State of the Teutonic Order, Poland, Prussia, Russia, Germany |
Königsberg (German:
A Baltic port city, it successively became the capital of the State of the Teutonic Order, the Duchy of Prussia and the provinces of East Prussia and Prussia. Königsberg remained the coronation city of the Prussian monarchy from 1701 onwards, though the capital was Berlin. From the thirteenth to the twentieth centuries on, the inhabitants spoke predominantly German, although the city also had a profound influence upon the Lithuanian and Polish cultures. It was a publishing center of Lutheran literature, including the first Polish translation of the New Testament, printed in the city in 1551, the first book in Lithuanian and the first Lutheran catechism, both printed in Königsberg in 1547.
A university city, home of the
The city was heavily damaged by
It is now the capital of Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast, an exclave bordered in the north by Lithuania and in the south by Poland. In the Final Settlement treaty of 1990, Germany renounced all claims to the city.
Name
The first mention of the present-day location in chronicles indicates it as the place of a village of fishermen and hunters. When the
In Polish, it is called Królewiec, in Lithuanian Karaliaučius (
History
Sambians
Königsberg was preceded by a
Arrival of the Teutonic Order
During the conquest of the Prussian
The Teutonic Order used Königsberg to fortify their conquests in
Within the
Königsberg joined the
Although the knights suffered a crippling defeat in the
Polish sovereignty
Since 1440, the city was a founding member of the anti-Teutonic Prussian Confederation. In 1454 the Confederation rebelled against the Teutonic Knights and asked the Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon to incorporate Prussia into the Kingdom of Poland, to which the King agreed and signed an act of incorporation.[19] The local mayor pledged allegiance to the Polish King during the incorporation in March 1454.[20] This marked the beginning of the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) between the State of the Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Poland. The city, known in Polish as Królewiec, became the seat of the short-lived Królewiec Voivodeship.[21] King Casimir IV authorized the city to mint Polish coins.[22] While Königsberg/Królewiec's three towns initially joined the rebellion, Altstadt and Löbenicht soon rejoined the Teutonic Knights and defeated Kneiphof (Knipawa) in 1455. Grand Master Ludwig von Erlichshausen fled from the crusaders' capital at Castle Marienburg (Malbork) to Königsberg in 1457; the city's magistrate presented Erlichshausen with a barrel of beer out of compassion.[23]
Following the
Duchy of Prussia
Through the preachings of the
While the Prussian estates quickly allied with the duke, the Prussian peasantry would only swear allegiance to Albert in person at Königsberg, seeking the duke's support against the oppressive nobility.[citation needed] After convincing the rebels to lay down their arms, Albert had several of their leaders executed.[29]
Königsberg, the capital, became one of the biggest cities and ports of Ducal Prussia, having considerable autonomy, a separate
Königsberg was one of the few Baltic ports regularly visited by more than one hundred ships annually in the latter 16th century, along with
The capable Duke Albert was succeeded by his feeble-minded son,
Brandenburg-Prussia
When Imperial and then
In 1661 Frederick William informed the Prussian diet that he possessed jus supremi et absoluti domini, and that the
The Prussian estates which swore fealty to Frederick William in Königsberg on 18 October 1663[36] refused the elector's requests for military funding, and Colonel Christian Ludwig von Kalckstein sought assistance from neighbouring Poland. After the elector's agents had abducted Kalckstein, he was executed in 1672. The Prussian estates' submission to Frederick William followed; in 1673 and 1674 the elector received taxes not granted by the estates and Königsberg received a garrison without the estates' consent.[37] The economic and political weakening of Königsberg strengthened the power of the Junker nobility within Prussia.[38]
Königsberg long remained a center of Lutheran resistance to
Kingdom of Prussia
By the act of coronation in Königsberg Castle on 18 January 1701, Frederick William's son, Elector Frederick III, became Frederick I, King in Prussia. The elevation of the Duchy of Prussia to the Kingdom of Prussia was possible because the Hohenzollerns' authority in Prussia was independent of Poland and the Holy Roman Empire. Since "Kingdom of Prussia" was increasingly used to designate all of the Hohenzollern lands, former ducal Prussia became known as the Province of Prussia (1701–1773), with Königsberg as its capital. However, Berlin and Potsdam in Brandenburg were the main residences of the Prussian kings.
The city was wracked by
During the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the Russian Empire occupied and annexed Königsberg at the end of 1757. By the terms of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (signed 5 May 1762), Russia relinquished its claim to Königsberg and it reverted back to Prussian control.[35][41]
Kingdom of Prussia after 1773
After the
After Prussia's defeat at the hands of
In 1819 Königsberg had a population of 63,800.[47] It served as the capital of the united Province of Prussia from 1824 to 1878, when East Prussia was merged with West Prussia. It was also the seat of the Regierungsbezirk Königsberg, an administrative subdivision.[48]
Led by the provincial president
The extensive
Weimar Republic
Following the defeat of the
Nazi Germany
In 1932 the local paramilitary SA had already started to terrorise their political opponents. On the night of 31 July 1932 there was a bomb attack on the headquarters of the Social Democrats in Königsberg, the Otto-Braun-House. The Communist politician Gustav Sauf was killed, and the executive editor of the Social Democrat "Königsberger Volkszeitung", Otto Wyrgatsch, and the German People's Party politician Max von Bahrfeldt were severely injured. Members of the Reichsbanner were attacked and the local Reichsbanner Chairman of Lötzen (Giżycko), Kurt Kotzan, was murdered on 6 August 1932.[57][58]
Following Adolf Hitler's coming to power, Nazis confiscated Jewish shops and, as in the rest of Germany, a public book burning was organised, accompanied by antisemitic speeches in May 1933 at the Trommelplatz square. Street names and monuments of Jewish origin were removed, and signs such as "Jews are not welcomed in hotels" started appearing. As part of the state-wide "aryanisation" of the civil service Jewish academics were ejected from the university.[59]
In July 1934, Hitler made a speech in the city in front of 25,000 supporters.[60] In 1933 the NSDAP alone received 54% of votes in the city.[60] After the Nazis took power in Germany, opposition politicians were persecuted and newspapers were banned. The Otto-Braun-House was requisitioned and became the headquarters of the SA, which used the house to imprison and torture opponents. Walter Schütz, a communist member of the Reichstag, was murdered there.[61] Many who would not co-operate with the rulers of Nazi Germany were sent to concentration camps and held prisoner there until their death or liberation.
In 1935, the
In World War II both Königsberg and Berlin had large Fernschreibstelle (teleprinter offices) for the
Persecution of Jews under the Nazi regime
Prior to the Nazi era, Königsberg was home to a third of East Prussia's 13,000 Jews. Under Nazi rule, the Polish and Jewish minorities were classified as
After the
In 1944–1945, the Germans operated a sub-camp of the Stutthof concentration camp in Königsberg, where they imprisoned around 500 Jews as forced labour.[66] In 1939, the Germans also established a forced labour camp for Romani people in the city.[67]
Persecution of Poles during World War II
In September 1939, with the German invasion of Poland underway, the Polish consulate in Königsberg was attacked (which constituted a violation of international law), its workers arrested and sent to concentration camps where several of them died.[68] Polish students at the local university were captured, tortured and finally executed.[68] Other victims included local Polish civilians guillotined for petty violations of German law and regulations such as buying and selling meat.[68]
In September 1944 69,000 slave labourers were registered in the city (not counting prisoners of war), with most of them working on the outskirts; within the city were 15,000 slave labourers.[69] All of them were denied freedom of movement, forced to wear a "P" sign, if Poles, or "Ost" sign, if they were from the Soviet Union, and were watched by special units of the Gestapo and Wehrmacht.[69] They were denied basic spiritual and physical needs and food, and suffered from famine and exhaustion.[69] The conditions of the forced labour were described as "tragic", especially for Poles and Soviets, who were treated harshly by their German overseers. Ordered to paint German ships with toxic paints and chemicals, they were neither given gas-masks nor was there any ventilation in facilities where they worked, supposedly to expedite construction, while the substances evaporated in temperatures as high as 40 Celsius. As a result, there were cases of sudden illness or death during the work.[69]
Destruction in World War II
In 1944, Königsberg suffered heavy damage from British bombing attacks and burned for several days. The historic city center, especially the original quarters Altstadt, Löbenicht, and Kneiphof were destroyed, including the cathedral, the castle, all churches of the old city, the old and the new universities, and the old shipping quarters.[70]
Many people fled from Königsberg ahead of the
On 21 January, during the Red Army's
On 9 April – one month before the end of the war in Europe – the German military commander of Königsberg, General Otto Lasch, surrendered the remnants of his forces, following the three-month-long siege by the Red Army. For this act, Lasch was condemned to death, in absentia, by Hitler.[76] At the time of the surrender, military and civilian dead in the city were estimated at 42,000, with the Red Army claiming over 90,000 prisoners.[77] Lasch's subterranean command bunker is preserved as a museum in today's Kaliningrad.[78]
About 120,000 survivors remained in the ruins of the devastated city. The German civilians were held as forced labourers until 1946. Only the Lithuanians, a small minority of the pre-war population, were collectively allowed to stay.
According to Soviet documents, there were 140,114 German inhabitants in September 1945 in the region that later became the Kaliningrad Oblast, thereof 68,014 in Königsberg. Between April 1947 and May 1951, according to Soviet documents, 102,407 were deported to the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. How many of the deportees were from the city of Königsberg does not become apparent from Soviet records. It is estimated that 43,617 Germans were in the city in the spring of 1946.[82] According to German historian Andreas Kossert, there were about 100,000 to 126,000 German civilians in the city at the time of Soviet conquest, and of these only 24,000 survived to be deported in 1947. Hunger accounted for 75% of the deaths, epidemics (especially typhoid fever) for 2.6% and violence for 15%, according to Kossert.[83]
Soviet Kaliningrad
Under the Potsdam Agreement of 1 August 1945, the city became part of the Soviet Union pending the final determination of territorial borders at an anticipated peace settlement. This final determination eventually took place on 12 September 1990 when the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany was signed. The excerpt from the initial agreement pertaining to the partition of East Prussia, including the area surrounding Königsberg, is as follows (note that Königsberg is spelt "Koenigsberg" in the original document):
VI. CITY OF KOENIGSBERG AND THE ADJACENT AREA
The Conference examined a proposal by the Soviet Government that pending the final determination of territorial questions at the peace settlement, the section of the western frontier of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics which is adjacent to the Baltic Sea should pass from a point on the eastern shore of the Bay of Danzig to the east, north of Braunsberg – Goldep, to the meeting point of the frontiers of Lithuania, the Polish Republic and East Prussia.The Conference has agreed in principle to the proposal of the Soviet Government concerning the ultimate transfer to the Soviet Union of the city of Koenigsberg and the area adjacent to it as described above, subject to expert examination of the actual frontier.
The
President of the United States and the British Prime Minister supported the proposal of the Conference at the forthcoming peace settlement.[84]
Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946 after the
Some historians speculate that it may have originally been offered to the
The German language was replaced with the Russian language. In 1950, there were 1,165,000 inhabitants, which was only half the number of the pre-war population.
From 1953 to 1962, a monument to Stalin stood on Victory Square. In 1973, the town hall was turned into the House of Soviets. In 1975, the trolleybus was launched again. In 1980, a concert hall was opened in the building of the former Lutheran Church of the Holy Family. In 1986, the Kreuzkirche building was transferred to the Russian Orthodox Church.
For foreigners, the city was completely closed and, with the exception of rare visits of friendship from neighboring Poland, it was practically not visited by foreigners.[88][89]
The old city was not restored, and the ruins of the Königsberg Castle were demolished in the late 1960s,[1] on Leonid Brezhnev's personal orders,[1][2] despite the protests of architects, historians, local historians and ordinary residents of the city.[5][6][7]
The "reconstruction" of the oblast, threatened by hunger in the immediate post-war years, was carried out through an ambitious policy of oceanic fishing[90] with the creation of one of the main fishing harbours of the USSR in Kaliningrad city. Fishing not only fed the regional economy but also was a basis for social and scientific development, in particular oceanography.[91]
In 1957, an agreement was signed and later came into force which delimited the border between Polish People's Republic (Soviet satellite state at the time) and the Soviet Union.[92][93]
The region was added as a
The area was administered by the planning committee of the Lithuanian SSR, although it had its own Communist Party committee.[citation needed] In the 1950s, Nikita Khrushchev offered the entire Kaliningrad Oblast to the Lithuanian SSR but Antanas Sniečkus refused to accept the territory because it would add at least a million ethnic Russians to Lithuania proper.[87][95]
In 2010, the German magazine Der Spiegel published a report claiming that Kaliningrad had been offered to Germany in 1990 (against payment). The offer was not seriously considered by the West German government which, at the time, saw reunification with East Germany as a higher priority.[96] However, this story was later denied by Mikhail Gorbachev.[97]
Demographics
Following the Christianization of the region, the vast majority of the population was
- Number of inhabitants, by year
- 1400: 10,000
- 1663: 40,000
- 1819: 63,869
- 1840: 70,839
- 1855: 83,593
- 1871: 112,092
- 1880: 140,909
- 1890: 172,796
- 1900: 189,483 (including the military), among whom were 8,465
- 1905: 223,770, among whom were 10,320
- 1910: 245,994
- 1919: 260,895
- 1925: 279,930, among whom were 13,330 Catholics, 4,050 Jews and approximately 6,000 others.[100]
- 1933: 315,794
- 1939: 372,164
- 1945: 73,000
Jews
The Jewish community in the city had its origins in the 16th century, with the arrival of the first Jews in 1538. The first synagogue was built in 1756. A second, smaller synagogue which served Orthodox Jews was constructed later, eventually becoming the New Synagogue.
The Jewish population of Königsberg in the 18th century was fairly low, although this changed as restrictions[101] became relaxed over the course of the 19th century. In 1756 there were 29 families of "protected Jews" in Königsberg, which increased to 57 by 1789. The total number of Jewish inhabitants was less than 500 in the middle of the 18th century, and around 800 by the end of it, out of a total population of almost 60,000 people.[102]
The number of Jewish inhabitants peaked in 1880 at about 5,000, many of whom were migrants escaping
Lithuanians
The
Poles
According to historian
From the 16th to 20th centuries, the city was a publishing center of Polish-language religious literature. In 1545 in Königsberg a Polish catechism was printed by
Although formally the relationship of these lands with Poland stopped at the end of the 17th century, in practice the Polish element in Königsberg played a significant role for the next century, until the outbreak of World War II. Before the second half of the 19th century many municipal institutions (e.g. courts, magistrates) employed Polish translators, and there was a course in Polish at the university.[120] Polish books were issued as well as magazines with the last one being the Kalendarz Staropruski Ewangelicki (Old Prussian Evangelical Calendar) issued between 1866 and 1931.[35] The city played an important role in the January uprising, as it was one of the main supply centres for Polish underground movement, with about 10 companies of Königsberg smuggling arms and ammunition for Polish insurgents. There was a complex Polish resistance network built in the city, including figures such as Kazimierz Szulc and Piotr Drzewiecki. In 1876, Wojciech Kętrzyński wrote that the city retained a significant Polish community and the local population had pro-Polish sentiments, writing: "In Königsberg [...] a Pole among Germans today still finds sympathetic hearts, hearts that nourish sympathy for him".[121] At that time, between 25 and 30 percent of the city's population was Polish.[121][122]
During the Protestant Reformation the oldest church in Königsberg, St. Nicholas, was opened for non-Germans, especially Lithuanians and Poles.[123] Services for Lithuanians started in 1523, and by the mid-16th century also included ones for Poles.[124] By 1603 it had become a solely Polish-language church as Lithuanian service was moved to St. Elizabeth. In 1880 St. Nicholas was converted to a German-language church; weekly Polish services remained only for Masurians in the Prussian Army, although those were halted in 1901.[125] The church was bombed in 1944, further damaged in 1945, and the remaining ruins were demolished after the war in 1950.[126]
Culture and society
Notable people
Königsberg was the birthplace of the mathematician
Languages
The language of government and high culture was
Arts
In the Königsstraße (King Street) stood the Academy of Art with a collection of over 400 paintings. About 50 works were by
Königsberg Castle
Education
Königsberg became a center of education when the
Multiculturalism
As a consequence of the
Sports
Cuisine
Königsberg was well known within Germany for its unique regional cuisine.[citation needed] A popular dish from the city was Königsberger Klopse, which is still made today in some specialist restaurants in the now Russian city and elsewhere in present-day Germany.
Other food and drink native to the city included:
- Königsberger Marzipan
- Kopskiekelwein, a wine made from blackcurrants or redcurrants
- Bärenfang
- Ochsenblut, literally "ox blood", a champagne-burgundy cocktail mixed at the popular Blutgericht pub, which no longer exists (the pub was located in the north wing of Königsberg Castle, which was demolished in 1968)
- Königsberger Fleck or Königsberg-style tripe soup, made with the addition of bone marrow and root vegetables
Fortifications
The
There was a
See also
- List of people from Königsberg
- Seven Bridges of Königsberg, a topology problem
- Kaliningrad (Königsberg) question
- Königsberger Paukenhund, traditional kettle drum dog of the Prussian infantry
References
Citations
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External links
- Photoarchaeology of Kneiphof
- Kaliningrad Photo Gallery – Reisebilder aus Königsberg
- The Film Königsberg is dead, France/Germany 2004 by Max & Gilbert (in German and English)
- Territory's history from 1815 to 1945 (in German)
- Interactive Map with photos of Königsberg and modern Kaliningrad Archived 29 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- Site with 400+ side-by-side photos of 1939/2005 identical locations in Königsberg/Kaliningrad (in Russian and German)
- Northeast Prussia 2000: Travel Photos
- Adreßbuch der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Königsberg., Адресная книга Кёнигсберга. (нем. яз.)(1770–1941)