Kīlauea
Kīlauea | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Elevation | 1,247 m (4,091 ft)[1] |
Prominence | 15.3 m (50 ft)[2] |
Coordinates | 19°25′16″N 155°17′12″W / 19.421097472°N 155.286762433°W[1] |
Geography | |
Location | Hawaiʻi, United States |
Geology | |
Age of rock | 210,000 to 280,000 years old[3] |
Mountain type | Shield volcano, hotspot volcano |
Volcanic arc/belt | Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain |
Last eruption | September 10–16, 2023 |
Kīlauea (US: /ˌkɪləˈweɪə/ KIL-ə-WAY-ə, Hawaiian: [kiːlɐwˈwɛjə]) is an active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. It is located along the southeastern shore of Hawaii Island. The volcano is between 210,000 and 280,000 years old and grew above sea level about 100,000 years ago. Since the islands were settled it has been the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the island.
Kīlauea is one of the most active volcanoes on Earth. The most recent eruption lasted one week in September 2023 when multiple vents erupted inside Halemaʻumaʻu crater.
Kīlauea is the second-youngest product of the
Between 2008 and 2018, Halemaʻumaʻu hosted an active lava lake. Kīlauea
Beginning in May 2018,
In connection with the 2018 lower Puna eruption the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory predicted that a catastrophic collapse was "extremely unlikely".[10]
Background
Kīlauea is a Hawaiian word that means "spewing" or "much spreading", referring to its frequent outpouring of lava. Its earliest lavas date back to its submarine preshield stage. Samples were recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles; samples of other flows were recovered as core samples. Lavas younger than 1,000 years old cover 90 percent of the volcano's surface. The oldest exposed lavas date back 2,800 years.
Kīlauea's eruption from January 3, 1983, to 2018 was by far its longest-duration period of activity in modern times, as well as one of the longest-duration eruptions documented on Earth; as of January 2011, the eruption had produced 3.5 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava and resurfaced 123.2 km2 (48 sq mi) of land. Centuries prior to this event, the even larger ʻAilāʻau eruption of 1410 lasted about 60 years, ending in 1470 with an estimated volume of 4–6 km3 (0.96–1.44 cu mi).[13]
Kīlauea's activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology, where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh
English
Geology
Setting
Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Kīlauea was formed as the
Kīlauea is one of five
Kīlauea started as a submarine volcano, gradually growing larger and taller via underwater eruptions of alkali basalt lava before emerging from the sea with a series of explosive eruptions[24] about 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. Since then, the volcano's activity has produced a continual stream of effusive and explosive eruptions of roughly the same pattern as its activity since records began to be kept.[25]
Hawaii island's oldest volcano,
Structure
Kīlauea has been
Kīlauea lacks
Kaluapele
Kīlauea has a large summit caldera named Kaluapele (the pit of Pele),[21] measuring 4 by 3.2 km (2.5 by 2.0 mi) with walls up to 120 m (400 ft) high, breached by lava flows on the southwestern side.[27] The age of Kaluapele is unknown, and it is possible that it has appeared and disappeared multiple times.[25] Kaluapele likely formed over several centuries, beginning about 500 years ago,[32] while its present form was finalized around 1470–1510 after a particularly powerful eruption from 1410 to 1470.[25] A major feature within Kaluapele is Halemaʻumaʻu, a large pit crater and one of Kīlauea's most historically active eruption centers. The crater is approximately 920 m (3,018 ft) in diameter and 85 m (279 ft) deep, but its form has varied widely; its floor is mostly covered by flows from its 1974 eruption.[33]
Rift zones
Kīlauea has two rift zones radiating from its summit, one leading 125 km (78 mi) out to the east, the other 35 km (22 mi) long and trending towards the southwest.[25] A series of fault scarps connecting the rift zones form the Koaʻe Fault Zone. Tectonic extension along them is causing Kīlauea's bulk to slowly slide seaward off its southern flank at a rate of about 6 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) per year, centered on a basal décollement fault 7 to 9 km (4 to 6 mi) beneath the volcano's surface.[34] The eastern rift zone is a dominant feature on the volcano; it is almost entirely covered in lava from the last 400 years, and at its crest near the summit is 2 to 4 km (1 to 2 mi) wide.[29] Non-localized eruptions, typical of rift zone activity,[25] have produced a series of low-lying ridges down the majority of the east rift zone's length.[29] Its upper segment is the most active section.[28][32] It is the site of large pit craters.[26] It reaches down Kīlauea's submerged flank to a depth of more than 5,000 m (16,400 ft).[32] By contrast, the much smaller southwestern rift zone last had a rifting episode in 1974, and has not been active in the current eruptive cycle.[34] The southwestern rift zone's extremity is underwater, although its subaerial length is more limited. The southwestern rift zone lacks a well-defined ridge line and pit craters, evidence that it is less active than the eastern rift zone.[32]
Hilina fault system
A prominent structure on Kīlauea's southern flank is the Hilina fault system, an active fault slipping vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm (1⁄16 to 13⁄16 in) per year.[clarification needed] Its physiographic province is 500 m (1,640 ft) deep, but it is unknown whether it is a shallow listric fault or penetrates deeply.[15]
Eruptive history
All historical eruptions occurred at either Kaluapele, the eastern rift zone, or the southwestern rift zone.[19] Half of Kīlauea's historical eruptions have occurred at or near Kaluapele. Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, capped by an explosive eruption in 1924, before petering out by 1934. Later activity mostly shifted to the eastern rift zone, the site of 24 historical eruptions, located mostly on its upper section. By contrast, the southwestern rift zone remained relatively quiet, hosting five events.[25]
Prehistoric eruptions
Geologists dated and documented dozens of major eruptions over the volcano's history, bridging the gap between Kīlauea's oldest known rock and written records and historical observation.[35] Lava flows are generally recovered by scientists in one of three ways. The oldest flows, 275,000 to 225,000 years ago, were recovered from Kīlauea's submerged southern slope by remotely operated vehicles. These lavas exhibit forms characteristic of early, submerged preshield-stage eruptive episodes, from when the volcano was a rising seamount yet to breach the ocean surface,[36] and their surface exposure is unusual, as in most other volcanoes such lavas would have since been buried by later flows.[15]
The second method is by drilling
The oldest well-studied eruptive product from Kīlauea is the Uwēkahuna Ash Member, the product of explosive eruptions from 800 to 100 BC. Although it was mostly buried by younger flows, it remained exposed in some places, and was traced more than 20 km (12 mi) from Kaluapele, evidence of powerful eruptions. Evidence suggests the existence of an active eruptive center at this time, termed the
1410 to 1790
The longest-duration major eruption witnessed by Native Hawaiians took place from about 1410 to 1470. Lasting around 60 years, the ʻAilāʻau eruption's effusive flow covered most of Kīlauea, north of the East Rift Zone in what became the Puna District.[37] Most likely due to the duration of this flow, the summit collapsed around 1470–1510, creating Kaluapele. These discoveries and the collapse of the summit were supplemented by translations of Native Hawaiian chants on the mythology of Pele and Hiʻiaka; these events were interpreted from this story.[11][38]
After arriving in Hawaii, Pele made Kīlauea her home. She sent her sister Hiʻiaka to retrieve Lohiʻau, an attractive man she met on Kauaʻi, on the condition that Pele protect the forests of Puna if Hiʻiaka returned in 40 days. As the journey lasted longer than 40 days, Pele set fire to the forest. When Hiʻiaka finally returned with Lohiʻau and made the smoky discovery, she became angry and made love to Lohiʻau right in front of Pele. In retaliation, Pele then killed Lohiʻau before throwing him in a pit on the summit of Kīlauea. Hiʻiaka started digging ferociously to recover his body, letting rocks fly everywhere.
These events are interpreted to describe the ʻAilāʻau flow.[11][38] In addition to Hawaiian oral history, geologists studied and confirmed them with radiocarbon and paleomagnetic dating.[37]
Kīlauea then entered a 300-year period of explosive eruptions from around 1510 to 1790 as discovered by the radiocarbon dating of the Keanakākoʻi (the cave in which
1790 to 1934
The earliest reliable written records date to about 1820,
The volume of lava expelled by Kīlauea varied widely across eruptions. After 1823 Kaluapele gradually filled, filling up under nearly continuous summit eruption, with 3 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava released by 1840. The period between 1840 and 1920 saw approximately half that in lava volume. In the thirty years between then and about 1950, the volcano was unusually quiet and exhibited little activity; Kīlauea's eruptive volume increased steadily thereafter, with activity comparable to that of the early 1800s.[25]
The length and origin of these eruptions varied. Events lasted anywhere between days and years, and occurred at a number of different sites. Activity around Kaluapele was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, and after a reprieve between 1894 and 1907, continued until 1924.
Effusive eruptions are of relatively recent vintage there. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Kīlauea was the site of regular explosive activity, evidenced by tribal chants. .[42]
Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832, but the first major eruption after 1790 occurred in 1840, when its eastern rift zone became the site of a large, effusive
Activity in 1921–1923 followed.[27] The next major eruption occurred in 1924. Halemaʻumaʻu first drained, then quickly began sinking, deepening to nearly 210 m (689 ft) beneath a thick cloud of volcanic ash. Explosive activity began on May 10, blowing out rock chunks weighing as much as 45 kg (99 lb) 60 m (197 ft), and smaller fragments weighing about 9 kg (20 lb) as far as 270 m (886 ft). After a brief reprieve, the eruption intensified through a major blast on May 18, when an enormous explosive event caused the eruption's only fatality. The eruption continued and formed numerous eruption columns above 9 km (6 mi) in height, declining and ending by May 28.[42][45] Volcanic activity was soon confined to the summit, and ended after 1934.[27] From 1823 to 1924, the volcano erupted 15 times, with an additional 11 subsidence events occurring at the summit.[46]
1952 to 1982
After the Halemaʻumaʻu event, Kīlauea remained relatively quiet, and for a time, completely silent, with activity confined to the summit.
After 1960 eruptive events occurred frequently until August 2018. The period 1967–1968 saw a particularly large, 80-million-cubic-meter, 251-day event from Halemaʻumaʻu.
1983–2018
Another eruption occurred from January 1983 to September 2018. It had the longest duration of any observed eruption at this volcano. As of December 2020[update], it was the twelfth-longest duration volcanic eruption on Earth since 1750., sending lava flows downslope.
In 1986, activity shifted down the rift to a new vent, named Kūpaʻianahā, where it took on a more effusive character. Kūpaʻianahā built up a low, broad volcanic shield, and
As of the end of 2016, the east rift zone eruption had produced 4.4 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava, covered 144 km2 (56 sq mi) of land, added 179 ha (442 acres) of land to the island, destroyed 215 structures, and buried 14.3 km (9 mi) of highway under lava as thick as 35 m (115 ft).[54]
In addition to the nearly continuous activity at Puʻu ʻOʻo and other vents on the east rift zone, a separate eruption began at Kilauea's summit in March 2008. On March 19, 2008, following several months of increased sulfur dioxide emissions and seismic tremor, a new vent opened at Halemaʻumaʻu. Following this event, a new crater formed in the explosion, informally named the "Overlook Crater," emitting a thick gas plume that obscured views into the vent. Explosive events occurred at the vent throughout 2008.[55]
On September 5, 2008, scientists observed a lava pond deep within the Overlook Crater for the first time. Beginning in February 2010, a lava pond was visible at the bottom of the crater almost continuously through the beginning of May 2018. Lava briefly overflowed the vent onto the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu in April and May 2015, October 2016, and April 2018.[55][56][57]
2018 eruptive episodes
Beginning in March 2018, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory began to detect rapid inflation at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō,[58] leading scientists to warn that the increased pressure could form a new vent at Kilauea.[59]
Following weeks of increased pressure, the crater floor of the cone of Puʻu ʻŌʻō collapsed on April 30, 2018, as magma migrated underground into the lower Puna region of Kilauea's lower east rift zone.[60] Over the next few days, hundreds of small earthquakes were detected on Kīlauea's East rift zone, leading officials to issue evacuation warnings. On May 3, 2018, new fissures formed, and lava began erupting in lower Puna after a 5.0 earthquake earlier in the day, causing evacuations of the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions.[61][62]
A seemingly related 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurred on May 4.[63] By May 9, 27 houses had been destroyed in Leilani Estates.[64][65]
By May 21, two lava flows had reached the Pacific Ocean, creating thick clouds of laze (a toxic lava and haze cloud made up of hydrochloric acid and glass particles).[66]
By May 31, 87 lava had destroyed houses in Leilani Estates and nearby areas, accompanied by additional evacuation orders, including for the town of Kapoho.[67][68] By June 4, the lava had crossed through Kapoho and entered the ocean. The confirmed number of houses lost reached 159,[69] then two weeks later, 533,[70] and ultimately 657.[71]
The lava lake at Halemaʻumaʻu began to drop on May 2.[60] The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory warned that this increased the potential for phreatic (steam) explosions at the summit caused by interaction of magma with the underground water table, similar to the explosions that occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu in 1924. These concerns prompted the closure of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park.[72] On May 17, at approximately 4:15 a.m., an explosive eruption occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu, creating a plume of ash 30,000 feet into the air.[73] This marked the beginning of a series of vigorous explosions that produced significant ash plumes from Halemaʻumaʻu.[74] These explosions, accompanied by large earthquakes and inward slumping and collapse within and around Halemaʻumaʻu, continued until early August.[75][76]
2019–20: Water lake appears at the summit
In late July 2019, a water lake appeared on the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu for the first time in over 200 years,[77] as water from the rebounding water table began to enter the crater. The crater lake gradually grew in size.[78] On December 1, 2020, the lake was approximately 49 metres (161 ft) deep.[79] Meanwhile, the temperature of the lake's surface, as measured by a thermal camera, generally measured between 70–85 °C (158–185 °F).[80] Within a month, the water lake was replaced by a lava lake during the new eruption.
December 2020 – May 2021 summit eruption
On December 20, 2020, at 9:30 pm local time, an eruption broke out within Halemaʻumaʻu. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory reported that three vents were feeding lava into the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu Crater, boiling off the water lake that had been growing since summer 2019 and replacing it with a lava lake.
The eruption continued for another few months, with decreasing activity. On May 26, 2021, it was no longer erupting. Lava supply appeared to have ceased between May 11 and May 13, and the lake had crusted over by May 20. The last surface activity in Halemaʻumaʻu was observed on May 23.[86][87] When activity ceased, the lava lake was 229 metres (751 ft) deep.[88]
On August 23, 2021, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory raised Kīlauea's alert status from "Yellow/Advisory" to "Orange/Watch" due to an earthquake swarm and a concurrent increase in ground deformation at the summit.[89] The observatory returned Kīlauea's alert status to "Yellow/Advisory" two days later.[90]
September 2021 summit eruption
The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory recorded increased earthquake activity and changes in ground deformation patterns at Kīlauea's summit at about noon local time on September 29, 2021.[91] An eruption began at 3:20 p.m. local time when several fissures opened within Halemaʻumaʻu crater.[92] During the initial stages of the eruption, lava erupted in fountains more than 200 feet (61 m) tall. The fountain heights declined as the level of lava in the crater rose, partially drowning the erupting vents.[93]
Lava continued to erupt at Halemaʻumaʻu throughout the fall. Overflight measurements from October 5, 2022, indicated that 111 million m3 (29 billion U.S. gal) of lava had been effused, and that the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu had risen 143 meters (469 ft), since the beginning of this eruption.[94][95] The eruption paused on December 9, and the alert level was reduced accordingly on December 13, 2022, though seismic activity was still unsettled.[96]
2023 summit eruptions
Eruptive activity within Halemaʻumaʻu resumed on January 5, 2023.[97] The eruption ended 61 days later on March 7, 2023.[98]
On June 7, 2023, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory detected a glow in web camera images atop Kilauea, indicating that an eruption had begun in the Halemaʻumaʻu crater, within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.[99] The eruptive episode ended after twelve days on June 19, 2023.[100]
2023's third Halemaʻumaʻu eruption episode occurred from September 10 to September 16, 2023, when multiple vents opened.[101]
Hazards
In 2018, the USGS National Volcanic Threat Assessment gave Kīlauea an overall threat score of 263, and ranked it first among volcanoes in the United States most likely to threaten lives and infrastructure.[102]
Volcanic Explosivity Index
The
VEI | Number of Holocene eruptions for which a VEI has been assigned (total=91) |
---|---|
VEI 0 | 75
|
VEI 1 | 10
|
VEI 2 | 4
|
VEI 3 | 1
|
VEI 4 | 1
|
Oral traditions
Native Hawaiians have passed down ancient oral traditions surrounding the volcanoes ever since they settled on the islands. These oral histories provide rich cultural and geologic knowledge. In the field of volcanology, the use of oral history emerged from obscurity to become a resource for understanding the eruption history of a given region. While oral history has been used to confirm previously known geologic data, it can be used to assess hazards surrounding an eruption, in addition to guiding the rehabilitation of affected communities.[105]
Using the oral history of the ʻAilāʻau eruption, volcanologists learned that Kīlauea was much more explosive than previously thought. Given its eruption history, the tradition predicts a long period of explosive eruptions.[40] Hawaiian chants provided clues that surface water had been found at the summit in earlier times. The story of Pele and Hiʻiaka recorded extensive lava flows, as well as a collapse of Kaluapele in about 1500.[21]
Ecology
Background
Because of its position more than 3,000 km (1,864 mi) from the nearest continental landmass, the island of Hawaiʻi is one of the most geographically isolated landmasses; this strongly influenced its ecology. The majority of the species present on the island are endemic, the result of its isolated lineage sheltered; its ecosystem is vulnerable to invasive species and to human development–an estimated one-third of the island's natural flora and fauna is extinct.[106]
Kīlauea's ecological community is further threatened by the volcano itself;[26] lava flows often overrun and incinerate forest sections, while ash smothers local plant life. Layers of carbonized organic material at the bottom of ash deposits are evidence of this destruction. Parts of the volcano's slopes display the dichotomy between pristine montane forest and volcanic "deserts" yet to be recolonized.[107]
Kīlauea's bulk affects local climate through the influence of
Ecosystems
Much of Kīlauea's southern section lies within the national park. It offers aʻe ferns, ʻōhiʻa trees (
Some of the area alongside the southwestern rift zone takes the form of the Kaʻū Desert. Although not a "true" desert (rainfall there exceeds the maximum 1,000 mm (39 in) a year), precipitation mixing with drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide forms acid rain with a pH as low as 3.4, greatly hampering plant growth.[112] The deposited tephra particulates make the local soil very permeable. Plant life there is practically nonexistent.[113]
Kīlauea's northern lowland wet-forest ecosystem is partially protected by the
Human history
Ancient Hawaiian
The first
The summits of the island's volcanoes are revered as
Modern era
The first foreigner to arrive at Hawaii was
Another missionary, C. S. Stewart, U.S.N., wrote of it in his journal A Residence in the Sandwich Island, which Letitia Elizabeth Landon quoted from in the notes to her poetical illustration to an engraving of a painting by William Ellis after F Howard, The Volcano of Ki-Rau-E-A in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832.[125]
One of the earliest and most important surveyors of Kīlauea was
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
The next era of Kīlauea's history began with the establishment of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory in 1912. The first permanent such installation in the United States, the observatory was the brainchild of Thomas Jaggar, head of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. After witnessing the devastation of the 1908 Messina earthquake near Mount Etna in Italy, he declared that systematic volcanic and seismic study was requirede, and chose Kīlauea as the initial site. After securing funding from MIT and the University of Hawaiʻi, Jaggar served as director of the observatory between 1912 and 1940. He pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of the volcano.[129] After initial funding ran out, the Observatory was funded by the National Weather Service, USGS, and the National Park Service in turn. USGS reclaimed the observatory and funded it after 1946. The main building moved twice since establishment, and today sits on the northwest rim of Kaluapele.[130]
Research
In October 2019, January 2020, and December 2020, USGFS volcanologists used a drone to study gases inside the water lake at the summit, as it was too dangerous for humans to approach. After the lake boiled away, they used the drone to study the resulting gas plumes.[132]
In 2022, researchers reported that Kīlauea's seismic waves could be used to predict future outbreaks. These waves can last for tens of seconds. After the 2007 eruption ended, they analyzed thousands of events from seismic sensors, GPS stations, and lake height observations, including variables such as temperature and gas bubble density. They reported that magma temperature was associated with seismic signal duration and bubble quantity and composition.[133]
Tourism
Kīlauea became a tourist attraction in the 1840s, and businessmen such as
In 1891,
Hawaii tourism grew slowly before exploding with the advent of
Volcano House provides lodging within the park, while additional housing options are available in the
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Further reading
- MacQueen, P (2011). "Forward modeling to access and improve gravity network geometry at Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii". Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal. 1 (1): 24–44. hdl:1794/23367.
- Geologic map of the summit region of Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai (Map). 1:24,000. Geologic Investigations Series I-2759. United States Geological Survey. 2003. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
- Geologic map of the middle east rift geothermal subzone of Kīlauea Volcano, Hawaii (PDF) (Map) (1.0 ed.). 1:24,000. Geologic Investigations Series I-2614. United States Geological Survey. 2006. ISBN 1-4113-0659-7. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
External links
- Kilauea at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- "Kilauea". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- Hawaiian Volcano Observatory's Kīlauea website
- Live webcams of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa
- USGS updates on Kilauea's Lava (and water) lakes, May 11, 2022
- Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park website
- Hawaii Groundwater & Geothermal Resources Center by the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
- The Geothermal Collection by University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
- Video footage of the March 2011 Kamoamoa Fissure Eruption and the collapse of Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater