Kalabhra dynasty
Kalabhra Kingdom | |||||||||||||
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3rd century–6th century | |||||||||||||
Kaveripumpattinam, Madurai | |||||||||||||
Common languages | Prakrit,[1] Tamil[2] | ||||||||||||
Religion | Buddhism Jainism Hinduism | ||||||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||
• Established | 3rd century | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 6th century | ||||||||||||
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The Kalabhra dynasty, also called Kaḷabrar, Kaḷappirar, Kallupura or Kalvar,
Historian
Identification
The origin and identity of the Kalabhras is uncertain. One theory states that they were probably hill tribes that rose out of obscurity to become a power in
According to Kulke and Rothermund, "nothing is known about the origins or tribal affiliations" of the Kalabhras, and their rule is called the "Kalabhra Interregnum".[13] They are reviled in texts written centuries later, particularly by Tamil Hindu scholars.[10] This has led to the inference that the Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported Buddhism and Jainism during their rule.[10][13] However, the textual support for these conjectures is unclear. In support of their possible Jaina patronage, is the 10th-century Jain text on grammar which quotes a poem that some scholars attribute to Acchuta Vikkanta, a Kalabhra king.[13] A non-Tamil language Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya by Buddhadatta was composed in the 5th-century Tamil region. According to Shu Hikosaka, Buddhadatta in this Pali language text mentions "Putamarikalam in the Chola country".[14] According to Karl Potter in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Buddhist philosophy from 360 to 650 AD, multiple scholars place the 5th-century Buddhadatta in the Chola kingdom near Kaveri river.[15] According to Arunachalam, the Pali manuscripts of this text includes the name Acutavikkante Kalambakulanandane and therefore he states Acutavikkante must have been a Kalabhra king.[16] However, the oldest surviving Vinayaviniccaya manuscript in Pali does not have that name, it has Kalabbha. This could be Kalabhra.[17]
Buddhadatta in his manuals (in the Nigamanagātha of Vinayavinicchaya, verse 3179) identifies his patron as follows:[19]
Accut' Accutavikkante Kalambakulanandane |
In the time of the immortal Accutavikkante, the pride of the Kalamba family |
and once again the tika (colophon) adds:[20][21]
Kalambhakulavamsa jāte Accutavikkamanāme Colarājini |
This work Vinicchaya was accomplised, |
Amritasagara, a
A few verses of the
According to Burton Stein, the Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism).
In epigraphs
Pulankurichi inscription
The earliest Kalabhra inscription available is the Pulankurichi (Tamil Nadu) epigraph of king Chēndan Kurran (Kootran) dated to 270 CE. It is also one of the earliest inscriptions in Tamil and extends to over 15 metres in length. It refers to the administrative divisions of the kingdom and also to Vedic sacrifices and temples. Scholar
8th-century Velvikudi grant inscription
A much-cited and discussed epigraphical evidence for the existence of Kalabhras is the 155-lines-long 8th-century
L 39: Then a Kali king named Kalabhran took possession of the extensive earth driving away numberless great kings (adhiraja) and resumed the (village mentioned Velvikudi) above.
L 40: After that, like the sun rising from the expansive ocean, the Pandyadhiraja named Kadungon, the lord of the South of sharp javelin who wore (the cloak of) dignity and was the leader of an army, sprang forth, occupied (the throne), spreading around him the brilliant splendour of (his) expanding rays (prowess), destroyed the kings of the extensive earth surrounded by the sea together with (their) strongholds and (their) fame, wielded the sceptre of justice and removed by his strength the evil destiny of the goddess of the earth whose splendour deserved to be under the shade of (his) white umbrella, by terminating by his strength the possession of her under others and establishing her in his own possession in the approved manner and destroyed the shining cities of kings who would not submit to him.
The inscription then recites the generations of Pandya and Chola kings who followed the victorious Kadungon, and finally to king Nedunjadaiyan who ruled in the year of the inscription (c. 770 CE). The copper plate records that a Brahmin complainant said that the land grant which was given to his ancestors before Kalabhras "ignobly seized it" has not been returned so far after numerous generations (lines 103–118).[30] The king sought evidence of past ownership, which he was provided, and thereafter the king restored the grant to the complainant.[30] The inscription ends in Sanskrit with verses from Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism, followed by the engraver's colophon.[30] This inscription has been assumed to be an accurate historical record by some scholars, interpreted to affirm that Kalabhras existed for some period, they conquered some or all parts of the Pandyan kingdom, they seized lands belonging to Brahmin(s) and were defeated by the Pandyas (Pāṇṭiya).[31] Some scholars dismiss the Kalabhra interregnum as for all practical purposes "a myth".[31]
The passing mention of Kalabhras in some records have led to a number of theories for the identity of the Kalabhras. T. A. Gopinath Rao equates them with the
Numismatics
A study of unearthed coins of that era show on the two sides of each coin, a range of Brahmi inscriptions in Prakrit language and images. Typically the coins show tiger, elephant, horse and fish icons. In "rare specimens", states Gupta, one finds an image of a seated Jain muni (monk) or the Buddhist Manjushri, or a short sword or the Swastika symbol. Other coins of this era have images of Hindu gods and goddesses with inscriptions in Tamil or Prakrit. According to Gupta, these use of Prakrit language on the coins may reflect the non-Tamil origins of Kalabhra.[32] Other scholars are skeptical of the coin's dating and interpretation, the origins of the coins and the impact of trade, and the rareness of Jain and Buddhist iconography.[35][36]
According to Timothy Power – a scholar of Middle East and Mediterranean archaeology and history, coins and texts attest to an on-going trade between the Mediterranean, Middle East and South Indian ports such as Muziris until the 5th century, but then suddenly there is no mention of Indian ports in the Mediterranean texts around mid-6th century.[37] This "dark age" may be related to the conquest of Kalabhras over Tamilakam in the 6th century. This period of violence and the closure of trading ports probably lasted about 75 years, around the first half of the 6th century.[37]
Religion and literature
Part of a series on |
History of Tamil Nadu |
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The religious affiliation of Kalabhras is unknown. According to Peterson theory, the Kalabhras patronised the Sramana religions (
Buddhism flourished as is evident from the writings of
Buddhadatta vividly describes the capital
In the lovely Kaveripattana crowded with hordes of men and women from pure families endowed with all the requisites of a town with crystal clear water flowing in the river, filled with all kinds of precious stones, possessed of many kinds of bazaars, beautified by many gardens, in a beautiful and pleasant vihara built by Kanhadasa, adorned with a mansion as high as the Kailasa, and having different kinds of beautiful entrance-towers on the outer wall, I lived in an old mansion there and wrote this work..
According to F. E. Hardy, the palace ceremony of Kalabhras was dedicated to a Vishnu or
According to the Gandhipadavannanā of Buddhadatta's manual Vinayavinicchaya, the word Accuta of the patron king was used in the same context as the epithet of Narayana (Accutassa Nārāyanassa viya vikkantām ettassāti Accutavikkanto).[44]
The early twin
End of the dynasty
It is unknown as to how the Kalabhras rule ended. However, a multitude of evidence affirms that Simhavishnu – the Pallava king and Pandya Kadungon had united the Tamil regions, removed Kalabhras and others. Simhavishnu consolidated his kingdom from south of the Krishna river and up to the Kaveri river by c. 575 CE. To the south of Kaveri, the Pandyas came to power. Cholas became subordinates of Pallavas and they were already ruling Telugu region of Rayalaseema. The Kalabhra rule which had dominated the political scene of the Tamil country for few centuries was defeated and ended by the Chalukyas, Pandyas, and Pallavas.[4] This is attested by the numerous inscriptions dated from the 6th century and thereafter, as well as the Chinese language memoirs of the Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang who visited the Tamil region about 640 CE along with other parts of the Indian subcontinent.[51] Xuanzang describes a peaceful cosmopolitan region where some 100 monasteries with 10,000 monks were studying Mahayana Buddhism, Kanchipuram was hosting learned debates with hundreds of heretic Deva (Hindu) temples but no Buddhist institutions. Xuangzang makes no mention of the Kalabhras.[52][53]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d Indira Peterson 1998, pp. 166–167.
- ^ a b Kamil Zvelebil 1992, p. 93.
- ^ Sir Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1927). Early History of the Deccan and Miscellaneous Historical Essays. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. p. 206.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
- ISBN 978-0-19-908832-4. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-206-0559-6.
- ^ ISBN 9780674012271.
During most of this period , the Tamil country was under the rule of the Kalabhras, said to be tribal invaders from Karnataka following the Jaina faith.
- ^ T.V. Mahalingam (1981). Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference. South Indian History Congress. pp. 32–34.
- ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
- ^ ISBN 9780141937427. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
- ^ S. Velsamy Kavirayar (1934). குருகுல வரலாறு.
- ^ Superintendent Government Press, Madras (1918). Madras District Gazetteers Salem Vol I Part I.
- ^ ISBN 9780415329200. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
- ^ Hikosaka, Shu (1989). Buddhism in Tamilnadu: A New Perspective. Institute of Asian Studies. p. 24.
- ISBN 978-81-208-1968-9.
- ^ Arunachalam 1979, pp. 52–55.
- ISBN 978-3-11-081498-9.
- ISBN 0226742210.
- ^ K. A. NILAKANTA SASTRI, M.A., Emeritus Professor of Indian History and Archaeology, University of Madras. Professor of Indology. University of Mysore. (1955). THE COLAS, SECOND EDITION. G. S. Press, Madras. p. 108.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ BIMALA CHURN LAW Ph.D., M.A., B.L. (1976). GEOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS RELATING TO ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA. BHARATIYA PUBLISHING HOUSE. p. 59.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Nagendra Kr Singh, ed. (1997). International encyclopaedia of Buddhism. 51. Nepal. Anmol Publications. p. 4514.
- ^ Sivaram, Rama (1994). Early Chōla Art: Origin and Emergence of Style. Navrang. p. -25.
- ^ Vidya Dhar Mahajan (1962). Ancient India. S. Chand. p. 571.
- ^ D. Devakunjari. Madurai Through the Ages From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research. p. 73.
- ^ Civattampi, Kārttikēcu (1981). Drama in Ancient Tamil Society. New Century Book House. p. 158.
- ^ ISBN 9780195635072.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-00-022793-2.
- JSTOR 3517169.
- ^ Sen, Madhu, ed. (1983). Studies in Religion and Change. Books & Books. p. 146.
- ^ a b c d e f Rao Bahadur H. Krishna Sastri (1923). Epigraphia Indica, Volume XVII. Archaeological Society of India. pp. 293–294, 306, 308, context: 291–309.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-275-99621-5.
- ^ ISBN 9788170222484. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
- ISBN 9788120605596. Retrieved 8 September 2016.
- ^ Sastri, Rao Bahadur H. Krishna (1924). Epigraphia Indica vol.17. Government of India. p. 295.
- ^ A. V. Narsimhamurthy; Singh, PN; et al. (1996). The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 58. Numismatic Society of India. pp. 10–12.
- ^ N. Subrahmanian (1994). Original sources for the history of Tamilnad: from the beginning to c. A.D. 600. Ennes. pp. 329–331.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-61797-350-5.
- ^ K. Krishna Murthy. Glimpses of Art, Architecture, and Buddhist Literature in Ancient India. Abhinav Publications, 1987. pp. 93–94.
- ^ Aruṇācalam, Mu. The Kalabhras in the Pandiya Country and Their Impact on the Life and Letters There. University of Madras, 1979. p. 53.
- ^ Bimala Churn Law. Indological Studies, Vol 3. Ganganatha Jha Research Institute, 1954. p. 225.
- ^ The March of India, Vol 8. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1956. p. 52.
- ^ Veermani Pd. Upadhyaya Felicitation Volume by Veermani Prasad Upadhyaya
- ^ Buddhism in Tamil Nadu: collected papers By G. John Samuel, Ār. Es Śivagaṇēśamūrti, M. S. Nagarajan, Institute of Asian Studies (Madras, India)
- ^ Nagendra Kr Singh. International encyclopaedia of Buddhism. 51. Nepal. Anmol Publications, 1997. p. 4514.
- ^ S. Sundararajan. Ancient Tamil Country: Its Social and Economic Structure. Navrang, 1991. p. 233.
- ^ Iḷacai Cuppiramaṇiyapiḷḷai Muttucāmi (1994). Tamil Culture as Revealed in Tirukkural. Makkal Ilakkia Publications. p. 137.
- ^ Gopalan, Subramania (1979). The Social Philosophy of Tirukkural. Affiliated East-West Press. p. 53.
- ^ Stuart Blackburn 2000, pp. 464–465.
- ^ P. R. Natarajan 2008, pp. 1–6.
- ^ Norman Cutler 1992, pp. 555–558.
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- Blackburn, Stuart (2000). "Corruption and Redemption: The Legend of Valluvar and Tamil Literary History". Modern Asian Studies. 34 (2): 449–482. S2CID 144101632.
- Cutler, Norman (1992). "Interpreting Tirukkuṟaḷ: The Role of Commentary in the Creation of a Text". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 112 (4): 549–566. JSTOR 604470.
- Natarajan, P. R. (2008). Thirukkural: Aratthuppaal (in Tamil) (First ed.). Chennai: Uma Padhippagam.
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- Kamil Zvelebil (1992). Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature. Brill.