Kalmyk Oirat
Kalmyk | |
---|---|
Хальмг келн Haľmg keln ᡍᠠᠯᡅᡏᠠᡎ ᡍᡄᠯᡄᠨ | |
Native to | Russia |
Region | Kalmykia |
Ethnicity | Kalmyks |
Native speakers | 110,000 (2021)[1] |
Cyrillic, Latin, Clear script | |
Official status | |
Official language in | Russia |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-2 | xal |
ISO 639-3 | xal |
xal-kal | |
Glottolog | kalm1244 |
ELP | Kalmyk-Oirat |
Kalmyk Oirat (Kalmyk: Хальмг Өөрдин келн, Haľmg Öördin keln, IPA:
History
Kalmyk is now only spoken as a native language by a small minority of the Kalmyk population.[
In 1957, the Soviet government reinstated the Kalmyk Autonomous Oblast and later reestablished the Autonomous Republic of Kalmykia. The Kalmyk people were permitted to return to the Republic in 1957, 14 years after exile. The Russian language, however, was made the official language of the Republic, and Sovietisation was imposed on the Kalmyk people, leading to drastic cuts in Kalmyk language education.[citation needed] The Cyrillic alphabet became firmly established among the Kalmyks (and other peoples, too). For instance, books, periodicals, newspapers, etc., were published using it. By the late 1970s, the Russian language became the primary language of instruction in all schools in the Republic.
During the period of Perestroika, Kalmyk linguists, in collaboration with the Kalmyk government, planned and tried to implement the revival of the Kalmyk language. This revival was seen as an integral part of the reassertion of Kalmyk culture. In an important symbolic gesture, the Kalmyk language was declared an official language of the Republic, giving it equal status with the Russian language with respect to official governmental use and language education.
During the production of the film Return of the Jedi, sound designer Rafe Mercieca—with his life-time partner Ben Curtis—based the language of the Ewoks on Kalmyk after hearing it spoken in a documentary and being impressed with its phonology.[4]
Geographic distribution
The majority of Kalmyk language speakers live in the Republic of Kalmykia, where it is an official language. A small group of Kalmyk language speakers also live in France and the US, but the use of Kalmyk is in steep decline. In all three locations, the actual number of speakers is unknown. Kalmyk is an endangered language.[5]
As of 2012, the Kalmyk community in New Jersey, which arrived in the US in the 1950s, was planning to work with the Enduring Voices project to promote Kalmyk language and culture.[6]
Linguistic classification
From a synchronic perspective, Kalmyk is the most prominent variety of Oirat. It is very close to the Oirat dialects found in Mongolia and the People's Republic of China, both phonologically and morphologically. The differences in dialects, however, concern the vocabulary, as the Kalmyk language has been influenced by and has adopted words from the Russian language and various Turkic languages.
Two important features that characterise Kalmyk are
It has some elements in common with the Uralic and Uyghur languages, which reflects its origin from the common language of the Oirats, a union of four Oirat tribes that absorbed some Ugric and Turkic tribes during their expansion westward.[citation needed]
Phonology
Similar to
Historical
Consonants
The following is an outline of the consonant system of Kalmyk. Note that since virtually all speakers of Kalmyk are
Labial | Alveolar | Post- Alveolar |
Dorsal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | /m/ м | / n / н
|
/nʲ/ нь | /ŋ/ ң | |
Plosive | voiceless | /p/ п | / t / т
|
/tʲ/ ть | /k/ к |
voiced | /b/ б | / d / д
|
/dʲ/ дь | /ɡ/ г | |
Affricate | voiceless | /t͡s/ ц | /t͡ɕ/ ч | ||
voiced | /d͡ʑ/ җ | ||||
Fricative | voiceless | (/f/ ф) | /s/ с | /ʃ/ ш | /x/ х |
voiced | (/β/) | /z/ з | /ɣ/ һ | ||
Approximant | /w/ в | / l / л
|
/lʲ/ ль | /j/ й | |
Trill | / r / р
|
- The onomatopoeicterms;
- The voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ may also be released as a uvular plosive [ɢ] in the word-initial position as well as uvular fricative [ʁ] in any position, including initial;
- The uvular [χ];
- The voiced labial approximant /w/ may be released as the voiced bilabial fricative [β];[9]
- The ] at the end, e.g. дөң [døŋk] "help", саң [saŋk] "treasury", маңна [maŋgna] "forehead".
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Close | /i/ /iː/ и ии | /y/ /yː/ ү үү | (/ɨ/) | /u/ /uː/ у уу |
Mid | /e/ /eː/ е ее | /ø/ /øː/ ө өө | /ə/ | /o/ /oː/ о оо |
Open | /æ/ /æː/ ә әә | /a/ /aː/ а аа |
- Note that the mid central vowel /ə/ is not orthographically written;
- The open back vowel is also phonetically central [ä];
- The (historically reduced) vowel /ə/ is phonetically released as [ə̟] in harmonically front-vowel words, as [ə̠] in back-vowel words, and as [ɪ] after palatal and post-alveolar consonants /nʲ tʲ dʲ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ʃ lʲ j/;[13]
- Although not always manifested orthographically, [accusative suffixes;[14]
- In native words, vowels /o oː/ and /ø øː/ can only appear in word-initial syllables.[15]
Devoicing and assimilation
Orthographic
- /kx/, /gx/, /xx/ > /kk/, /kk/, /xk/: закх /zakxə~zakkə/ "to order"; өргх /ørkxə~ørkkə/ "to raise" хатхх /xatxxə~xatxkə/ "to poke";
- /n/ + /b/ > /mb/: кен /ken/ "who" + б /bə/ "Q" > кемб /kembə/ "who-Q";
- /w/ + /n/ > /mn/: тәв- /tæv-/ "to put" + /-næ/ "PRS" > тәмнә /tæmnæ/ "to put-PRS";
- /w/ + voiceless consonant> /p/: ав- /awə/ "to take" + чк /t͡ɕkə/ "COMPL> апчк /apt͡ɕkə/ "to put-COMPL";
- /t͡ɕ/ + /l/ or /t/ > /ʃl/, /ʃt/: көвүчлх /køvyt͡ɕəlxə/ > көвүшлх /køvyʃəlxə/ "to adopt", ачтн /at͡ɕtən/ > аштн /aʃtən/ "to load-IMP.PL" ;
- /n/ > /ŋ/ before consonants /ɣ, g, x, k, s/: Written Oiratsonosxu "to listen" > соңсх /soŋksxə/, түрүн /tyryn/ "first" + к /kə/ "ADJ" > түрүңк /tyryŋkə/ "first-ADJ";
- /l/ is affricates/t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/: болҗ /bolʲd͡ʑə/ "to become-CV.IPEF".
The
The labial approximant or fricative /w/ can be pronounced as:
- Close rounded vowel [y] or [u] in past tense inflection: кел- /kelʲ-/ "to say" + -в /w/ "PST" + -в /w/ "1SG" > келүв /kelyw/ "I said" or in consonant clusters: тарвс /tarvəs/ > тарус /tarus/ "watermelon"
- stem ends in /-w/: ав- /aw-/ "to take" + -в /-w/ "PST" > /awbə/ "took".[16]
Vowel reduction and phonotactics
Word-initial
- In a word-final position: ик /i.kə/ "big", арат /a.ra.tə/ "fox", чон /t͡ɕo.nə/ "wolf";
- If, word-finally, there is either a open syllablewith a consonant cluster: эцкнр /et͡s.kə.nər/ "father-PL" келчксн /kelʲ.t͡sək.sən/ "to say-COMPL-PC.PST" соңсгдна /soŋk.sə.gdna/ "to hear-PASS-PRS";
- In closed non-final syllables of a multisyllabic word: шорһлҗн /ʃor.ɣəlʲ.d͡ʑən/ "ant", әәмшгтә /æ:m.ʃək.tæ/ "dangerous";[17]
- Word-finally in the following affixes:
- Ablative-ас /-asə/;
- Accusative-иг /-igə/, -г /-gə/;
- Adjective suffix -к /-kə/;
- Completive -чк /-t͡ɕkə/;
- evidentialsuffix -җ /-dʑə/;
- Dative-д /-də/;
- Negation particle эс /esə/;
- Present tense negation particle (or suffix) биш, -ш /biʃə/ /-ʃə/;
- Future tense participle -х /-xə/.[18]
On the other hand, the vowel /ə/ cannot form syllables on its own if the following is true:
- If the following syllable is open: бичх /bi.t͡ɕxə/ "to write", өгх /øk.kxə/ "to give";
- In inflectionsof two-syllable words, if the second syllable of an inflected word has a non-reduced vowel, e.g. мөрн /mørən/ "horse" > мөрта mørtæ "with a horse", церг /t͡se.rək/ "army" > церглә /t͡serglæ/ "with an army";
- If the following syllable is open and has non-reduced vowel: тоһрун */to.ɣə.run/ > /to.ɣrun/ "grus"; шамдһа */ʃam.də.ɣa/ > /ʃam.dɣa/ "sneaky". In this case, however, reduced syllables may be released phonetically, although they do not play a role in syllable forming.;[19]
Two-syllable words with schwa as a
Stress
Kalmyk exhibits non-phonemic stress with the last syllable (even if it ends in schwa) being stressed.[21]
Grammar
Like other
Nouns
Traditionally, Kalmyk
Kalmyk noun cases [23] Case Suffix (Cyrillic) Suffix (IPA) Clear Script spelling nominative -∅ -∅ - genitive -ин; -һин; -н; -а; -ә; -i -in; -ʁin; -n; -a; -æ; -i ᡅᡕᡅᠨ (-iyin); ᡎᡅᡕᡅᠨ (-giyin); ᠨ (-n); ᠠᡅ (-ai); ᡅ (-i) dative -д; -т -də; -tə ᡑᡇ (-du) / ᡑᡉ (-dü) (depending on vowel harmony) ᡐᡇ (-tu) / ᡐᡉ (-tü) accusative -иг; -г; ∅ -igə; -gə; ∅ ᡕᡅᡎᡅ (-yigi); ᡎᡅ (-gi); - ablative -ас; -әс; -һас; -һәс -asə; -æsə; -ʁasə; -ʁæsə ᠠᡃᠰᠠ (-āsa), ᡄᡃᠰᡄ (-ēse) (later spelling, written together with the word); ᡄᡃᡔᡄ (-ēce) (earlier spelling, written separately from the word) instrumental -ар; -әр; -һар; -һәр -ar; -ær; ʁar; ʁær ᠠᡃᠷ (-ār), ᡄᡃᠷ (-ēr); ᡅᡕᠠᠷ (-iyar) (earlier spelling) comitative -та; -тә -ta; -tæ ᡐᠠᡅ (-tai); ᡐᡄᡅ (-tei) directive -ур; -үр; -һур; -һүр -ur; -yr; -ʁur; -ʁyr ᡇᡇᠷ (-uur); ᡇᡇᠷᡇ (-uuru) (earlier spelling; written separately from the word)
- Genitive takes the suffix -ин (-in) in case it is preceded by a consonant; -һин (-ğin) or -н (-n) if it is preceded by a vowel; -ә (-ä), -a or -и (-i) if it is preceded by the /n/ consonant.
- Dative suffix is -т (-t) if preceded by voiced stops /b/ (/β/) /d/ /g/, voiceless sibilants /s/ /ʃ/, and /r/
- Accusative is marked (with a suffix) if the object is definite, unmarked if the object is indefinite
- Nouns ending in -n declense differently. -n is subtracted in the accusative, instrumental, and comitative cases. In all other cases, it is left untouched. For example: kelʲən "language-NOM" kelʲnæ "language-GEN" kelʲəndə "language-DAT" kelʲə/kelʲigə "language-ACC" kelʲnæsə "language-ABL" kelʲær "language-INS" kelʲtæ "language-COM" kelʲnyr "language-DIR"
- lativeusage.
Writing systems
The literary tradition of Oirat reaches back to 11th century when the Old Uyghur script was used. The official Kalmyk alphabet, named Clear Script or Todo bichig in Oirat, was created in the 17th century by a Kalmyk Buddhist monk called Zaya Pandita.
Like the Old Mongolian script, Todo bichig was written from top to bottom. Written Oirat language contained many words borrowed from the Mongolian language and not used in everyday speech, despite many attempts to bring the written standard and colloquial spoken language closer together. Thus, already at the beginning of the 18th century, two written forms of the Kalmyk language were recorded - “bookish”, used in religious practice and having numerous Mongolian and Tibetan borrowings and preserving archaic language forms, as well as “conversational”, used in private correspondence and reflecting the changes taking place in the language[24][full citation needed].[25]
Todo bichig, also called “zayapandit script” after its creator, existed among the Kalmyks until 1924 with minor changes. Oirats of China use it to the present.[26]
In 1924 this script was replaced by an adaptation of the Cyrillic script, which was abandoned in 1930 in favour of a Latin script.
Early Cyrillic alphabets
At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, the Orthodox Missionary Society published a number of school books in the Kalmyk language, using Cyrillic script. The first edition of this kind was the "Primer for Kalmyk ulus schools" (1892). The alphabet used in this primer has the following composition: А а, Б б, В в, Г г, Д д, Е е, З з, И и, К к, Л л, М м, Н н, О о, П п, Р р, С с, Т т, У у, Х х, Ц ц, Ч ч, Ш ш, ь, Э э, Ю ю, Я я,
On January 6, 1924, a meeting of the Kalmyk public was held in Astrakhan. At this meeting, the majority of the votes had declared obsolete writing - it was noted that it was difficult for writing and learning, lack of fonts, the inability to use on the telegraph, and so on. In this regard, it was decided to translate Kalmyk language into Cyrillic script. On January 12, the alphabet was adopted, consisting of the following letters: А а, Б б, В в, Г г, Д д, Е е, Ж ж, З з, И и, К к, Л л, М м, Н н, О о, П п, Р р, С с, Т т, У у, Ф ф, Х х, Ц ц, Ч ч, Ш ш, Щ щ, Ы ы, Э э, Ю ю, Я я, Ь ь, Й й,
September 7, 1926 at a meeting at the Kalmyk pedagogical school in Astrakhan, it was decided to make changes to the alphabet. So, all additional letters were canceled, and instead of them entered D d, V v, H h. In June 1927, this alphabet was introduced into official use, but much of the literature and press was still published in the alphabet of 1924.[33]
On February 5–8, 1928, a regular meeting on Kalmyk writing was held, at which the alphabet was reformed again. The letters D d, V v, H h were canceled, and the letter Ә ә was entered to indicate unclear vowels. It was decided to denote the long vowels by doubling the corresponding letters. This alphabet was used until 1930.[34]
Latin alphabet
In the late 1920s, the process of romanization of writing began in the USSR. In the course of this process in January 1930, the IX Kalmyk Regional Congress of Soviets legalized the new Latinized alphabet of the Kalmyk language. Its actual use began in newspapers from the end of September of the same year.[35] In this alphabet, the letters were arranged in the following order:[36] A a, B b, C c, Ç ç, D d, E e, Ә ә, G g, H h, I i, j, K k, L l, M m, N n, ꞑ, O o, Ө ө, P p, R r, S s, Ş ş, F f, Y y, Z z, Ƶ ƶ, U u, T t, V v, X x, ь.
On January 10–17, 1931, at a conference held in Moscow, scientists of the Mongolian group of peoples decided to change the phonetic meaning of the two letters of the Kalmyk script, as well as change the alphabetical order of the letters. In May of the same year, the III Kalmyk Regional Conference on Language and Writing, which was held in Elista, confirmed this decision. The alphabet took the following form:[37]
A a | B b | C c | Ç ç | D d | E e | Ə ə |
F f | G g | H h | I i | J j | K k | L l |
M m | N n | Ꞑ ꞑ | O o | Ө ө | P p | R r |
S s | Ş ş | T t | U u | V v | X x | Y y |
Z z | Ƶ ƶ | Ь ь |
The letter Ь ь, unlike most other Soviet Latinized alphabets, denoted palatalization.[38] In this form, the alphabet existed until 1938.
Modern Cyrillic alphabet
In the second half of the 1930s, the USSR began the process of translating scripts into Cyrillic. The Latin script was in turn
The modern Cyrillic alphabet used for the Kalmyk language is as follows:
А а | Ә ә | Б б | В в | Г г | Һ һ | Д д |
Е е | Ё ё | Ж ж | Җ җ | З з | И и | Й й |
К к | Л л | М м | Н н | Ң ң | О о | Ө ө |
П п | Р р | С с | Т т | У у | Ү ү | Ф ф |
Х х | Ц ц | Ч ч | Ш ш | Щ щ | Ъ ъ | Ы ы |
Ь ь | Э э | Ю ю | Я я |
Since the Tatar alphabet is identical to the Kalmyk alphabet (both featuring the same additional letters to the Russian one), Kalmyks using Windows use Tatar keyboard layouts to type Kalmyk. Kalmyk-specific keyboard layouts, however, are available on Android and Linux systems.
Alphabet matching table
Modern Cyrillic |
Latin (1930s) |
Cyrillic (1920-30s) |
Clear script |
Letter name | IPA |
Cyrillic transliteration[42]: 9, 16 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
А а | A a | А а | ᠠ | а | a | A a |
Ә ә | Ə ə | Ä ä (1938–41) Я я (1928–30) d (1926–28) Ä ä (1924–26) |
— | ә | æ | A̋ a̋ |
Б б | B в | Б б | ᡋ | бэ | b, bʲ | B b |
В в | V v | В в | ᡖ | вэ | v, vʲ | V v |
Г г | G g | Г г | ᡙ | гэ | ɡ, ɡʲ, ɢ | G g |
Һ һ | H h | Гъ гъ (1938–41) Г г (1928–30) Һ һ (1926–28) Г г (1924–26) |
ᡎ | һа | ɣ | Ḥ ḥ |
Д д | D d | Д д | ᡑ | дэ | d, dʲ | D d |
Е е | E e | Е е | — | е | (j)e | E e* |
Ё ё (in Russian loanwords only) |
— | — | — | ё | jo | Ë ë** |
Ж ж (in Russian loanwords only) |
Ƶ ƶ | Ж ж | — | жэ | ʒ | Z̆ z̆ |
Җ җ | Ƶ ƶ | Дж дж (1938–41) Ж ж (1928–30) Дж дж (1926–28) Ӝ ӝ (1924–26) |
ᡚ | җә | ʤ | Z̦̆ z̦̆ |
З з | Z z | З з | ᡓ | зэ | z | Z z |
И и | I i | И и | ᡅ | и | i | I i |
Й й | J j | Й й | ᡕ | ахр и | j | J j |
К к | K k | К к | ᡘ , ᡗ | кэ | k, kʲ | K k |
Л л | L l | Л л | ᠯ | эль | l, lʲ | L l |
М м | M m | М м | ᡏ | эм | m, mʲ | M m |
Н н | N n | Н н | ᠨ | эн | n, nʲ | N n |
Ң ң | Ꞑ ꞑ | Нъ нъ (1938–41) Нг нг (1926–30) Ң ң (1924–26) |
ᡊ | аң | ŋ | Ñ ñ |
О о | O o | О о | ᡆ | о | o | O o |
Ө ө | Ө ө | Ö ö (1938–41) Э э (1928–30) v (1926–28) Ö ö (1924–26) |
ᡈ | ө | ø | Ô ô |
П п (in Russian loanwords only) |
P p | П п | ᡌ | пэ | (p), (pʲ) | P p |
Р р | R r | Р р | ᠷ | эр | r, rʲ | R r |
С с | S s | С с | ᠰ | эс | s | S s |
Т т | T t | Т т | ᡐ | тэ | t, tʲ | T t |
У у | U u | У у | ᡇ | у | u | U u |
Ү ү | Y y | Ӱ ӱ (1938–41) Ю ю (1926–30) Ӱ ӱ (1924–26) |
ᡉ | ү | y | Ù ù |
Ф ф (in Russian loanwords only) |
F f | Ф ф | — | эф | (f) | F f |
Х х | X x | Х х | ᡍ | ха | x, xʲ | H h |
Ц ц | C c (1931–38) Ç ç (1930–31) |
Ц ц | ᡔ | цэ | ts | C c |
Ч ч | Ç ç (1931–38) C c (1930–31) |
Ч ч | ᡒ | чэ | tʃ | Č č |
Ш ш | Ş ş | Ш ш | ᠱ | ша | ʃ | S̆ s̆ |
Щ щ (in Russian loanwords only) |
— | Щ щ | — | ща | (ɕː) | Ŝ ŝ |
Ъ ъ | — | — | — | үзгин нерәдлһн | — | — |
Ы ы | — | Ы ы | — | ы | i | Y y |
Ь ь | Ь ь | Ь ь | — | җөөлн темдг | ʲ | ' |
Э э | E e | Э э | ᡄ | э | e | È è*** |
Ю ю | — | Ю ю | — | ю | jʊ | Û û |
Я я | — | Я я | — | я | ja | Â â |
* Pronounced /je/ at the beginning of words and /e/ otherwise. Only appears at the beginning of a word in Russian loanwords.
** This sound combination exists in native Kalmyk words, but is spelled "йо".
*** Only appears at the beginning of words.
Example text
This text is from State Anthem of the Republic of Kalmykia.
Kalmyk in Cyrillic script (modern) | Kalmyk in Cyrillic script (1924-1926) | Kalmyk in Cyrillic script (1926-1928) | Kalmyk in Latin script (1931–1938) | Kalmyk in Latin script (experimental) | English |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Сарул сәәхн Хальмг Таңһч Сансн тоотан күцәнә, Улан залата хальмг улс, Олн келн-әмтнлә хамдан Улан залата хальмг улс, Баатр-чиирг үрдәр туурад, Улан залата хальмг улс, |
Сарул сääхн Хальмг Таңгч Сансн тоотан күцäнä, Улан залата хальмг улс, Олн келн-äмтнлä хамдан Улан залата хальмг улс, Баатр-чиирг ӱрдäр туурад, Улан залата хальмг улс, |
Сарул сddхн Хальмг Тангһч Сансн тоотан кюцdнd, Улан залата хальмг улс, Олн келн-dмтнлd хамдан Улан залата хальмг улс, Баатр-чиирг юрдdр туурад, Улан залата хальмг улс, |
Sarul səəxn Xalьmg Taꞑhç Sansn tootan kycənə, Ulan zalata xalьmg uls, Oln keln-əmtnlə xamdan Ulan zalata xalьmg uls, Baatr-çiirg yrdər tuurad, Ulan zalata xalьmg uls, |
Sarul səəhn Haľmg Tañğç Sansn tótan küţənə, Ulan zalata haľmg uls, Oln keln-əmtnlə hamdan Ulan zalata haľmg uls, Bátr-çírg ürdər túrad, Ulan zalata haľmg uls, |
Bright and beautiful Kalmyk Republic Fulfills everything it wishes for. Kalmyks with Ulan-Zala, With all the peoples of different languages, Kalmyks with Ulan-Zala, Heroic children have succeeded, Kalmyks with Ulan-Zala, |
Notes
- ^ a b "Kalmyk-Oirat". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2022-03-12.
- ^ Kalmyk is alternatively spelled as Kalmuck, Qalmaq, or Khal:mag; Kalmyk Oirat is sometimes called "Russian Oirat" or "Western Mongol"
- ^ UNESCO Atlas of the World's languages in danger Retrieved on 2012-10-31 Archived 2019-09-12 at the Wayback Machine
- YouTube
- ISBN 9783863954642. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
- ^ K. David Harrison (2012-05-27). "Cultural Revival in Europe's Only Buddhist Region – News Watch". Archived from the original on June 13, 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-21.
- ^ Д. А. Павлов (1968). Современный калмыцкий язык. Фонетика и графика. Элиста: Калмыцкое книжное издательство. p. 227.
- ^ В. В. Баранова (2009). "Языковая ситуация в Калмыкии: социолингвистический очерк". Acta Linguistica Petropolitana. Труды института лингвистических исследований. 5 (2): 22–41.
- ^ Д. А. Павлов (1968). Современный калмыцкий язык. Фонетика и графика. Элиста: Калмыцкое книжное издательство. p. 127.
- ^ Ko, Seongyeon (2011). Vowel Contrast and Vowel Harmony Shift in the Mongolic Languages.
- ^ П. Ц. Биткеев (2009). Калмыцкий язык за 400 лет. Элиста: Джангар. p. 192.
- ^ С. С. Сай (2009). Исследования по грамматике калмыцкого языка. СПБ: Наука. p. 624.
- ^ П. Ц. Биткеев (2009). Калмыцкий язык за 400 лет. Элиста: Джангар. p. 58.
- ^ Д. А. Павлов (1968). Современный калмыцкий язык. Фонетика и графика. Элиста: Калмыцкое книжное издательство. pp. 37–38.
- ^ Д. А. Павлов (1968). Современный калмыцкий язык. Фонетика и графика. Элиста: Калмыцкое книжное издательство. p. 27.
- ^ Д. А. Павлов (1968). Современный калмыцкий язык. Фонетика и графика. Элиста: Калмыцкое книжное издательство. pp. 167–174.
- ^ Д. А. Павлов (1968). Современный калмыцкий язык. Фонетика и графика. Элиста: Калмыцкое книжное издательство. pp. 182–185, 191.
- ^ С. С. Сай (2009). Исследования по грамматике калмыцкого языка. СПБ: Наука. pp. 867–870.
- ^ Д. А. Павлов (1968). Современный калмыцкий язык. Фонетика и графика. Элиста: Калмыцкое книжное издательство. pp. 181–182.
- ^ Д. А. Павлов (1968). Современный калмыцкий язык. Фонетика и графика. Элиста: Калмыцкое книжное издательство. p. 168.
- ^ С. С. Сай (2009). Исследования по грамматике калмыцкого языка. СПБ: Наука. p. 630.
- ^ В. В. Баранова (2009). "Языковая ситуация в Калмыкии: социолингвистический очерк". Acta Linguistica Petropolitana. Труды института лингвистических исследований. 5 (2): 444.
- ^ В. В. Баранова (2009). "Языковая ситуация в Калмыкии: социолингвистический очерк". Acta Linguistica Petropolitana. Труды института лингвистических исследований. 5 (2): 640.
- ^ Номинханов 1976, pp. 6–11.
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- ^ Букварь для калмыков (опыт) (300 экз ed.). Казань: Православное миссионерское общество. 1902 [Хальмагӯдӣн тӧлӓ̄ бичигдэксэн ӱзӱгӱ̄дӣн дэктэр орошиба].
- ISSN 1995-0713.
- ^ Номинханов 1976, pp. 52–54.
- ^ Письменные языки мира: Языки Российской Федерации. Vol. 1. М. 2000. p. 171.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Л. Нармаев (1925). Сарул мӧр (5000 экз ed.). М.: СССР келен улсин аха издательство. p. 31.
- ^ Номинханов 1976, pp. 60–64.
- ^ Номинханов 1976, pp. 68–70.
- ^ Номинханов 1976, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Номинханов 1976, p. 79.
- ^ Номинханов 1976, pp. 82–86.
- ^ "По поводу проекта латинизации калмыцкого алфавита". Новый член алфавитной унии. Vol. VI. Баку. 1930. pp. 200–201.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Номинханов 1976, p. 130.
- ^ Р. С. Гиляревский, В. С. Гривин (1961). Определитель языков мира по письменностям (2-е ed.). М.: Изд-во восточной литературы. p. 64.
- ^ "Noves Sl. Hivern-Primavera 2001. Language Policy and Minority Language Planning in Russia (4)". www6.gencat.net. Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
- ^ "ГОСТ 7.79-2000" (PDF). Правила транслитерации кирилловского письма латинским алфавитом. Межгосударственный совет по стандартизации, метрологии и сертификации.
Works cited
- Номинханов, Ц. Д. (1976). Очерк истории калмыцкой письменности [Essay on the history of Kalmyk writing]. Мoscow: Наука.
External links
- Kalmyk phrasebook travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Article on language policy and history in Kalmykia
- Russian-Kalmyk On-Line Dictionary