Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount
Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount | |
---|---|
Summit depth | 3,200 ft (975 m).[1] |
Height | over 10,000 ft (3,000 m) above the ocean floor[2] |
Summit area | Volume – 160 cu mi (670 km3)[3] |
Translation | "glowing child of Kanaloa"[4] (from Hawaiian) |
Location | |
Location | Southeast of the island of Hawaiʻi, Hawaii, U.S. |
Coordinates | 18°55′N 155°16′W / 18.92°N 155.27°W[1] |
Country | United States |
Geology | |
Type | Submarine volcano |
Volcanic arc/chain | Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain |
Age of rock | At least 400,000 years old[5] |
Last eruption | February to August 1996[3] |
History | |
Discovery date | 1940 – U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey chart number 4115[5] |
First visit | 1978[5] |
Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount
Kamaʻehuakanaloa began forming around 400,000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10,000–100,000 years from now. At its summit, Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount stands more than 10,000 ft (3,000 m) above the seafloor, making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption. A diverse microbial community resides around Kamaʻehuakanaloa many hydrothermal vents.
In the summer of 1996, a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes was recorded at Kamaʻehuakanaloa. At the time this was the most energetic earthquake swarm in Hawaii recorded history. The swarm altered 4 to 5 sq mi (10 to 13 km2) of the seamount's summit; one section, Pele's Vents, collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele's Pit. The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory (HUGO) provided real-time data on Kamaʻehuakanaloa between 1997 and 1998. Kamaʻehuakanaloa's last known eruption was in 1996, before the earthquake swarm of that summer.
Naming
The name Kamaʻehuakanaloa is a Hawaiian language word for "glowing child of Kanaloa", the god of the ocean.[10] This name was found in two Hawaiian mele from the 19th and early twentieth centuries based on research at the Bishop Museum and was assigned by the Hawaiʻi Board on Geographic Names in 2021 and adopted by the U.S. Geological Survey.[10][11] From 1955 to 2021 the seamount was called "Lōʻihi", the Hawaiian word for "long", describing its shape. The change to Kamaʻehuakanaloa was made in an effort to be more culturally appropriate given native Hawaiian traditions for naming.[12]
Characteristics
Geology
Kamaʻehuakanaloa is a seamount, or underwater volcano, on the flank of Mauna Loa, the Earth's tallest shield volcano. It is the newest volcano produced by the Hawaiʻi hotspot in the extensive Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The distance between the summit of the older Mauna Loa and the summit of Kamaʻehuakanaloa is about 50 mi (80 km), which is, coincidentally, also the approximate diameter of the Hawaiʻi hotspot.[3] Kamaʻehuakanaloa consists of a summit area with three pit craters, a 7 mi (11 km) long rift zone extending north from the summit, and a 12 mi (19 km) long rift zone extending south-southeast from the summit.[13]
The summit's
Kamaʻehuakanaloa's north–south trending rift zones form a distinctive elongated shape, from which the volcano's earlier Hawaiian name "Lōʻihi," meaning "long", derives.[16] The north rift zone consists of a longer western portion and a shorter eastern rift zone. Observations show that both the north and south rift zones lack sediment cover, indicating recent activity. A bulge in the western part of the north rift zone contains three 200–260 ft (60–80 m) cone-shaped prominences.[15]
Until 1970, Kamaʻehuakanaloa was thought to be an inactive volcano that had been transported to its current location by
Kamaʻehuakanaloa is built on the seafloor with a slope of about five degrees. Its northern base on the flank of Mauna Loa is 2,100 yd (1,900 m) below sea level, but its southern base is a more substantial 15,600 ft (4,755 m) below the surface. Thus, the summit is 3,054 ft (931 m) above the seafloor as measured from the base of its north flank, but 12,421 ft (3,786 m) high when measured from the base of its southern flank.
Age and growth
Radiometric dating was used to determine the age of rock samples from Kamaʻehuakanaloa. The Hawaii Center for Volcanology tested samples recovered by various expeditions, notably the 1978 expedition, which provided 17 dredge samples. Most of the samples were found to be of recent origin; the oldest dated rock is around 300,000 years old. Following the 1996 event, some young breccia was also collected. Based on the samples, scientists estimate Kamaʻehuakanaloa is about 400,000 years old. The rock accumulates at an average rate of 1⁄8 in (3.5 mm) per year near the base, and 1⁄4 in (7.8 mm) near the summit. If the data model from other volcanoes such as Kīlauea holds true for Kamaʻehuakanaloa, 40% of the volcano's mass formed within the last 100,000 years. Assuming a linear growth rate, Kamaʻehuakanaloa is 250,000 years old. However, as with all hotspot volcanoes, Kamaʻehuakanaloa's level of activity has increased with time; therefore, it would take at least 400,000 years for such a volcano to reach Kamaʻehuakanaloa's mass.[5] As Hawaiian volcanoes drift northwest at a rate of about 4 in (10 cm) a year, was 25 mi (40 km) southeast of its current position at the time of its initial eruption.[19]
Activity
Kamaʻehuakanaloa is a young and fairly active volcano, although less active than nearby Kīlauea. In the past few decades, several earthquake swarms have been attributed to Kamaʻehuakanaloa, the largest of which are summarized in the table below.[20] The volcano's activity is now known to predate scientific record keeping of its activity, which commenced in 1959.[21] Most earthquake swarms at Kamaʻehuakanaloa have lasted less than two days; the two exceptions are the 1990-1991 earthquake, lasting several months, and the 1996 event, which was shorter but much more pronounced. The 1996 event was directly observed by an ocean bottom seismometer (OBS), allowing scientists to calculate the depth of the earthquakes as 4 mi (6 km) to 5 mi (8 km) below the summit, approximating to the position of Kamaʻehuakanaloa's extremely shallow magma chamber.[5] This is evidence that Kamaʻehuakanaloa's seismicity is volcanic in origin.[14]
The low-level seismic activity documented on Kamaʻehuakanaloa since 1959 has shown that between two and ten earthquakes per month are traceable to the summit.[21] Earthquake swarm data have been used to analyze how well Kamaʻehuakanaloa's rocks propagate seismic waves and to investigate the relationship between earthquakes and eruptions. This low level activity is periodically punctuated by large swarms of earthquakes, each swarm composed of up to hundreds of earthquakes. The majority of the earthquakes are not distributed close to the summit, though they follow a north–south trend. Rather, most of the earthquakes occur in the southwest portion of Kamaʻehuakanaloa.[5] The largest recorded swarms took place on Kamaʻehuakanaloa in 1971, 1972, 1975, 1991–92 and 1996. The nearest seismic station is around 20 mi (30 km) from Kamaʻehuakanaloa, on the south coast of Hawaii. Seismic events that have a magnitude under 2 are recorded often, but their location cannot be determined as precisely as it can for larger events.[22] In fact, HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory), positioned on Kamaʻehuakanaloa's flank, detected ten times as many earthquakes as were recorded by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) seismic network.[5]
1996 earthquake swarm
Year(s) | Summary |
---|---|
1996
|
Evidence of eruption in early 1996, and large, well-recorded earthquake swarm in the summer. Started on February 25, 1996, and lasted until August 9, 1996.[22][23] |
1991
|
An Ocean Bottom Observatory (OBO) device positioned on the seamount to track a recent earthquake swarm collected evidence of deflation, possibly due to magma withdrawal.[5] |
1986
|
Possible eruption, occurred on September 20, 1986 (one day).[23] |
1984–85
|
Nine events of magnitude 3 or greater, measuring between 3.0 and 4.2, were recorded from November 11, 1984, to January 21, 1985.[22] Eruption possible, but uncertain.[23] |
1975
|
Prominent earthquake swarm from August 24, 1975, to November 1975.[23] |
1971–72
|
Possible eruption from September 17, 1971, to September 1972.[23] Eruption uncertain. |
1952
|
An earthquake swarm on Kamaʻehuakanaloa in 1952 was the event that first brought attention to the volcano, previously thought extinct.[5] |
50 BC
± 1000 |
Confirmed ancient eruption[23] |
5050 BC
± 1000 |
Confirmed ancient eruption[23] |
7050 BC
± 1000 |
Confirmed ancient eruption, most likely on the east flank[22] |
This table indexes only possible volcanic eruptions and major events. Kamaʻehuakanaloa has also been the site of multiple earthquake swarms occurring on a nearly semi-annual basis. |
The largest amount of activity recorded for the Kamaʻehuakanaloa seamount was a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes between July 16 and August 9, 1996.[3] This series of earthquakes was the largest recorded for any Hawaiian volcano to date in both amount and intensity. Most of the earthquakes had moment magnitudes of less than 3.0. "Several hundred" had a magnitude greater than 3.0, including more than 40 greater than 4.0 and a 5.0 tremor.[22][24]
The final two weeks of the earthquake swarm were observed by a rapid response cruise launched in August 1996. The National Science Foundation funded an expedition by University of Hawaiʻi scientists, led by Frederick Duennebier, that began investigating the swarm and its origin in August 1996. The scientists' assessment laid the groundwork for many of the expeditions that followed.[25] Follow-up expeditions to Kamaʻehuakanaloa took place, including a series of crewed submersible dives in August and September. These were supplemented by a great deal of shore-based research.[24] Fresh rock collected during the expedition revealed that an eruption occurred before the earthquake swarm.[26]
Submersible dives in August were followed by
The researchers were continually met by clouds of
The studies demonstrated that the most volcanically and hydrothermally active area was along the southern rift. Dives on the less active northern rim indicated that the terrain was more stable there, and high lava columns were still standing upright.[25] A new hydrothermal vent field (Naha Vents) was located in the upper-south rift zone, at a depth of 1,449 yd (1,325 m).[5][28]
Recent activity
Kamaʻehuakanaloa has remained largely quiet since the 1996 event; no activity was recorded from 2002 to 2004. The seamount showed signs of life again in 2005 by generating an earthquake bigger than any previously recorded there. USGS-ANSS (
Exploration
Early work
Date | Study (most on R/V Kaʻimikai-o-Kanaloa and with Pisces V) |
---|---|
1940 | Kamaʻehuakanaloa's first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115, compiled by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1940.[5] |
1978 | An expedition formed to study intense seismic activity in the region at the time. Data collected was the first solid evidence of the volcano being active.[5] |
1979 | More extensive sampling (17 dredgehauls) from this expedition seemed to confirm the 1970 results.[5] |
1980 | Extensive |
1987 | Marking and study of several hydrothermic fields[28] |
August 1996 | Emergency response team dives reacting to extensive activity, led by Frederick Duennebier.[29] |
Early Sept. 1997 | Studies of hydrothermal vents (Batiza and McMurtry, Chief Scientists)[29] |
Late August 1997 | Geological studies of recent eruptions at Kamaʻehuakanaloa (Garcia and Kadko, Chief Scientists)[29] |
October 1997 | HUGO deployment (Frederick Duennebier, Chief Scientist)[29] |
September–October 1998 | Series of dives by multiple science parties to visit New Pit, Summit Area and HUGO.[29] |
January 1998 | HUGO revisit (Frederick Duennebier, Chief Scientist)[29] |
October 2002 | HUGO recovered from sea bottom.[30] |
October 2006 October 2007 October 2008 October 2009 |
FeMO (Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory) cruises to investigate iron-oxidizing microbes at Kamaʻehuakanaloa. Much is learned about Kamaʻehuakanaloa's microbial community.[31] |
Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount's first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115, a
Geologists suspected the seamount could be an active undersea volcano, but without evidence the idea remained speculative. The volcano was largely ignored after the 1952 event, and was often mislabeled as an "older volcanic feature" in subsequent charts.[5] Geologist Kenneth O. Emery is credited with naming the seamount in 1955, describing the long and narrow shape of the volcano as Kamaʻehuakanaloa.[13][16] In 1978, an expedition studied intense, repeated seismic activity known as earthquake swarms in and around the Kamaʻehuakanaloa area. Rather than finding an old, extinct seamount, data collected revealed Kamaʻehuakanaloa to be a young, possibly active volcano. Observations showed the volcano to be encrusted with young and old lava flows. Fluids erupting from active hydrothermal vents were also found.[2]
In 1978, a
1996 to present
The bulk of information about Kamaʻehuakanaloa comes from dives made in response to the 1996 eruption. In a dive conducted almost immediately after seismic activity was reported, visibility was greatly reduced by high concentrations of displaced minerals and large floating mats of bacteria in the water. The bacteria that feed on the dissolved nutrients had already begun colonizing the new hydrothermal vents at Pele's Pit (formed from the collapse of the old ones), and may be indicators of the kinds of material ejected from the newly formed vents. They were carefully sampled for further analysis in a laboratory.[25] An OBO briefly sat on the summit before a more permanent probe could be installed.[34]
Repeated multibeam bathymetric mapping was used to measure the changes in the summit following the 1996 collapse. Hydrothermal plume surveys confirmed changes in the energy, and dissolved minerals emanating from Kamaʻehuakanaloa. Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory, HURL's 2,000 m (6,562 ft) submersible Pisces V allowed scientists to sample the vent waters, microorganisms and hydrothermal mineral deposits.[7]
Since 2006, the Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO), funded by the
HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory)
In 1997, scientists from the
Ecology
Hydrothermal vent geochemistry
Vent[28] | Depth | Location | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Pele's | 1,000 m (3,281 ft) | Summit | Destroyed 1996 |
Kapo's | 1,280 m (4,199 ft) | Upper South rift | No longer venting |
Forbidden | 1,160 m (3,806 ft) | Pele's Pit | over 200 °C (392 °F) |
Lohiau ("slow") | 1,173 m (3,850 ft)[14] | Pele's Pit | 77 °C (171 °F) |
Pahaku ("rocky") | 1,196 m (3,924 ft) | South rift zone | 17 °C (63 °F) |
Ula ("red") | 1,099 m (3,606 ft) | South summit | Diffuse venting |
Maximilian | 1,249 m (4,098 ft) | West summit flank | Diffuse venting |
Naha | 1,325 m (4,347 ft) | South rift | 23 °C (73 °F) |
Kamaʻehuakanaloa's mid-Pacific location and its well-sustained hydrothermal system contribute to a rich oasis for a microbial ecosystem. Areas of extensive hydrothermal venting are found on Kamaʻehuakanaloa's crater floor and north slope,[7] and along the summit of Kamaʻehuakanaloa itself. Active hydrothermal vents were first discovered at Kamaʻehuakanaloa in the late 1980s. These vents are remarkably similar to those found at the mid-ocean ridges, with similar composition and thermal differences. The two most prominent vent fields are at the summit: Pele's Pit (formally Pele's Vents) and Kapo's Vents. They are named after the Hawaiian deity Pele and her sister Kapo. These vents were considered "low temperature vents" because their waters were only about 30 °C (86 °F). The volcanic eruption of 1996 and the creation of Pele's Pit changed this, and initiated high temperature venting; exit temperatures were measured at 77 °C (171 °F) in 1996.[28]
Microorganisms
The vents lie 1,100 to 1,325 m (3,609 to 4,347 ft) below the surface, and range in
A diverse community of microbial mats surround the vents and virtually cover Pele's Pit. The
NOAA's National Undersea Research Center and NSF's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center are cooperating to sample and research the local bacteria and archaea
Macroorganisms
Marine life inhabiting the waters around Kamaʻehuakanaloa is not as diverse as life at other, less active
From 1982 to 1992, researchers in Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory submersibles photographed the fish of Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount, Johnston Atoll, and Cross Seamount at depths between 40 and 2,000 m (130 and 6,560 ft).[41][42] A small number of species identified at Kamaʻehuakanaloa were newly recorded sightings in Hawaiʻi, including the tasseled coffinfish (Chaunax fimbriatus), and the Celebes monkfish.[41]
See also
References
- ^ a b c "Lōʻihi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2009-03-01.
- ^ a b Rubin, Ken (2006-01-19). "General Information About Loihi". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-02-01.
- ^ a b c d e "Lōʻihi Seamount Hawaiʻi's Youngest Submarine Volcano". Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2009-03-01.
- ^ Bobby Camara (October 1, 2021). "A Change of Name". Ka Wai Ola. Retrieved 2022-07-29.
- ^ ISSN 0009-2819.
- ^ "Kama'ehuakanaloa | U.S. Geological Survey". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ NOAA). Retrieved 24 November 2015.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Mauna Loa". www.usgs.gov. USGS. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
- ISSN 0012-821X.
- ^ a b Camara, Bobby (2021-10-01). "A Change of Name". Ka Wai Ola. Retrieved 2022-08-02.
- ^ "Kama'ehuakanaloa". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ "United States Board On Geographic Names Undersea Feature Name Proposal" (PDF). 2021-08-03. Retrieved 2022-12-22.
- ^ a b Malahoff, Alexander (1987). "Geology of the summit of Loihi submarine volcano". In Decker, Robert W.; Wright, Thomas L.; Stauffer, Peter H (eds.). Volcanism in Hawaii: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1350. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1350. Vol. 1. Washington: United States Government Printing Office. pp. 133–44. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
- ^ ISSN 1525-2027. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
- ^ doi:10.1029/jb093ib12p15227. Archived from the originalon 2009-04-16. Retrieved 2009-06-14.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8248-0703-0.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-0588-0.
- ^ "Evolution of Hawaiian Volcanoes". Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. USGS. September 8, 1995. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
- ^ Garcia, M.O.; Grooms, D.; Naughton, J. (1987). "Petrology and geochronology of volcanic rocks". Lithosphere (20). The Geological Society of America: 323–36.
- ^ School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
- ^ School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
- ^ a b c d e "Loihi – Monthly Reports". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
- ^ Isotope dating.
- ^ School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-03-01.
- ^ School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. 2001. Archived from the originalon 2009-03-05. Retrieved 2009-03-01.
- S2CID 35103405. Retrieved 2009-06-13.
- ^ .
- ^ a b c d e Rubin, Ken (1998-07-22). "Recent Activity at Loihi Volcano: Hydrothermal Vent and Buoyant Plume Studies". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
- ^ a b c d e f Rubin, Ken. "Cruises to Loihi Since the 1996 Eruption and Seismic Swarm". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
- ^ Duennebier, Fred (2002-10-01). "HUGO: Update and Current Status". School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
- ^ a b c "Introduction to the Biology and Geology of Loihi Seamount". Loihi Seamount. Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO). 2009-02-01. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
- ISBN 978-0-8248-0832-7.
- . Retrieved 2009-06-13.
- S2CID 128569263. Archived from the originalon 2013-01-03. Retrieved 2009-06-13.
- ^ "HUGO: The Hawaiʻi Undersea Geo-Observatory". School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
- PMID 12039770.
- PMID 17668050.
- ^ "FeMO4 Dive Cruise 2009". FeMO. EarthRef.org. 2009-10-17. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
- ^ Rubin, Ken (1998-09-07). "A Tour of Loihi". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
- ^ Rubin, Ken (1998-07-22). "Recent Activity at Loihi Volcano – 1996 Seismic/Volcanic Event Summary". Hawaii Center For Volcanology. School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
The only two vent-specific macrofaunal species described from Loihi have been a novel bresiliid shrimp, Opaepele loihi (Williams and Dobbs, 1995), and a unique lineage of pogonophoran worm (R. Vrijenhoek, pers. comm.). The post-event dives, however, found no evidence for either, and the long-term impact of the event on these species is unknown.
- ^ hdl:10125/2295.
- ^ "Observation Data". Seamounts Online. Archived from the original on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
Further reading
- ISSN 1525-2027. Retrieved 2009-04-27.
- Chave, E. H.; Alexander Malahoff (1998). In Deeper Waters: Photographic Studies of Hawaiian Deep-sea Habitats and Life-forms. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2003-9.
- F. K. Duennebier; N. C. Becker; J. Caplan-Auerbach; D. A. Clague; J. Cowen; M. Cremer; M. Garcia; F. Goff; A. Malahoff; G. M. McMurtry; B. P. Midson; C. L. Moyer; M. Norman; P. Okubo; J. A. Resing; J. M. Rhodes; K. Rubin; F. J. Sansone; J. R. Smith; K. Spencer; X. Wen; C. G. Wheat (1997-06-03). "Researchers rapidly respond to submarine activity at Loihi volcano, Hawaii" (PDF). .
- Emery, K.O. (1955). "Submarine topography south of Hawaii". Pacific Science. 9. University of Hawaiʻi Press: 286–91.
- "Loihi – Data Sources". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- Klein, F. (1982). "Earthquakes at Lōʻihi submarine volcano and the Hawaiian hot spot". Journal of Geophysical Research. 87 (A1): B9. ISSN 0148-0227.
- Macdonald, G.A. (1952). "The South Hawaii Earthquakes of March and April, 1952". The Volcano Letter (515): 3–5.
- Malahoff, Alexander; Gary M. McMurtry; John C. Wiltshire; Hsueh-Wen Yeh (1982-07-15). "Geology and chemistry of hydrothermal deposits from active submarine volcano Loihi, Hawaii". S2CID 4268636.
- Malahoff, A.; Gregory, T.; Bossuyt, A.; Donachie, S.; Alarn, M. (Oct 2002). "A seamless system for the collection and cultivation of extremophiles from deep-ocean hydrothermal vents". IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering. 27 (4): 862–69. .
- J.G. Moore; D.A. Clague; W.R. Normark (Feb 1982). "Diverse basalt types from Loihi Seamount, Hawaii". Geology. 10 (2): 88–92. .
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (2002). Benthic Invertebrate Collection Database.
External links
- Hawaii Center for Volcanology, University of Hawaiʻi.
- Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount – USGS website.
- Loihi Submarine Volcano: A unique, natural extremophile laboratory – NOAA research site.
- HURL Current Research – Loihi after the July–August event, on the 1996 Lōʻihi Seamount Exploration
- Recent volcanic activity at Loihi – University of Hawaiʻi
- Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory Project (FeMO) Webpage – Earthref.org