Kamakura
Kamakura
鎌倉市 | |
---|---|
Gentian | |
Phone number | 0467-23-3000 |
Address | 18-10 Onarimachi, Kamakura-shi, Kanagawa-ken 248-8686 |
Website | Official website |
Kamakura (鎌倉, Kamakura,
Kamakura is one of Japan's ancient capitals, alongside Kyoto and Nara, and it served as the seat of the Kamakura shogunate from 1185 to 1333, established by Minamoto no Yoritomo. It was the first military government in Japan's history. After the downfall of the shogunate, Kamakura saw a temporary decline. However, during the Edo period, it regained popularity as a tourist destination among the townspeople of Edo. Despite suffering significant losses of historical and cultural assets due to the Great Kantō Earthquake in 1923, Kamakura continues to be one of the major tourist attractions in the Kanto region, known for its historical landmarks such as Tsurugaoka Hachimangū and the Great Buddha of Kamakura.
Kamakura | |||||||
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Japanese name | |||||||
Kanji | 鎌倉 | ||||||
Hiragana | かまくら | ||||||
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Geography
Surrounded to the north, east, and west by hills and to the south by the open water of
Before the opening of the Entrances, access on land was so difficult that the Azuma Kagami reports that Hōjō Masako came back to Kamakura from a visit to Sōtōzan temple in Izu bypassing by boat the impassable Inamuragasaki cape and arriving in Yuigahama.[1] Again according to the Azuma Kagami, the first of the Kamakura shōgun, Minamoto no Yoritomo, chose it as a base partly because it was his ancestors' land (his yukari no chi), partly because of these physical characteristics.[1]
To the north of the city stands Mt. Genji (源氏山, Genjiyama) (92 m (302 ft)), which then passes behind the Daibutsu and reaches Inamuragasaki and the sea.[2]
From the north to the east, Kamakura is surrounded by Mt. Rokkokuken (六国見) (147 m (482 ft)), Mt. Ōhira (大平山) (159 m (522 ft)), Mt. Jubu (鷲峰山) (127 m (417 ft)), Mt. Tendai (天台山) (141 m (463 ft)), and Mt. Kinubari (衣張山) (120 m (390 ft)), which extend all the way to Iijimagasaki and
Kamakura is crossed by the
In administrative terms, the municipality of Kamakura borders with Yokohama to the north, with Zushi to the east, and with Fujisawa to the west.[2] It includes many areas outside the Seven Entrances as Yamanouchi, Koshigoe (腰越), Shichirigahama, and Ofuna, and is the result of the fusion of Kamakura proper with the cities of Koshigoe, absorbed in 1939, Ofuna, absorbed in 1948, and with the village of Fukasawa, absorbed in 1948.
Kita-Kamakura (Yamanouchi)
Northwest of Kamakura lies Yamanouchi, commonly called Kita-Kamakura because of the presence of East Japan Railway Company's (JR) Kita-Kamakura Station. Yamanouchi, however, was technically never a part of historical Kamakura since it is outside the Seven Entrances. Yamanouchi was the northern border of the city during the shogunate,[3] and the important Kobukorozaka and Kamegayatsu Passes, two of Kamakura's Seven Entrances, led directly to it. Its name at the time used to be Sakado-gō (尺度郷).[4] The border post used to lie about a hundred meters past today's Kita-Kamakura train station in Ofuna's direction.[3]
Although very small, Yamanouchi is famous for its traditional atmosphere and the presence, among others, of three of the five highest-ranking
Wakamiya Ōji and the shogunate's six avenues
Kamakura's defining feature is
Walking from the beach toward the shrine, one passes through three torii, or Shinto gates, called respectively Ichi no Torii ('first gate'), Ni no Torii ('second gate') and San no Torii ('third gate'). Between the first and the second lies Geba Yotsukado which, as the name indicates, was the place where riders had to get off their horses in deference to Hachiman and his shrine.[5]
Approximately 100 metres (330 ft) after the second torii, the dankazura, a raised pathway flanked by cherry trees that marks the center of Kamakura, begins. The dankazura becomes gradually wider, giving the effect of looking longer than it really is when viewed from the shrine. Its entire length is under the direct administration of the shrine. Minamoto no Yoritomo made his father-in-law Hōjō Tokimasa and his men carry by hand the stones to build it to pray for the safe delivery of his son Yoriie. The dankazura used to go all the way to Geba, but it was drastically shortened during the 19th century to make way for the newly constructed Yokosuka railroad line.[5]
In Kamakura, wide streets are known as Ōji (大路), narrower streets as Kōji (小路), the small streets that connect the two as zushi (辻子), and intersections as tsuji (辻). Komachi Ōji and Ima Kōji run respectively east and west of Wakamiya Ōji, while Yoko Ōji, the road that passes right under San no Torii, and Ōmachi Ōji, which goes from Kotsubo to Geba and Hase, run in the east–west direction.[5] Near the remains of Hama no Ōtorii runs Kuruma Ōji Avenue (also called Biwa Koji). These six streets (three running north to south and three east to west) were built at the time of the shogunate and are all still under heavy use. The only one to have been modified is Kuruma Ōji, a segment of which has disappeared.
Demographics
Per Japanese census data,[6][7] the population of Kamakura has remained relatively steady in recent decades.
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1920 | 29,692 | — |
1930 | 42,206 | +42.1% |
1940 | 56,598 | +34.1% |
1950 | 85,391 | +50.9% |
1960 | 98,617 | +15.5% |
1970 | 139,249 | +41.2% |
1980 | 172,629 | +24.0% |
1990 | 174,307 | +1.0% |
2000 | 167,583 | −3.9% |
2010 | 174,314 | +4.0% |
2020 | 172,710 | −0.9% |
History
Early history
The earliest traces of human settlements in the area date back at least 10,000 years.
The Azuma Kagami describes pre-shogunate Kamakura as a remote, forlorn place, but there is reason to believe its writers simply wanted to give the impression that prosperity had been brought there by the new regime.[9] To the contrary, it is known that by the Nara period (about 700 AD) there were both temples and shrines. Sugimoto-dera for example was built during this period and is therefore one of the city's oldest temples.[8] The town was also the seat of area government offices and the point of convergence of several land and marine routes. It seems therefore only natural that it should have been a city of a certain importance, likely to attract Yoritomo's attention.[9]
Etymology
The name Kamakura appears in the Kojiki of 712,[10][11] and is also mentioned in the c. 8th century Man'yōshū[12][13] as well as in the Wamyō Ruijushō[14] of 938. However, the city clearly appears in the historical record only with Minamoto no Yoritomo's founding of the Kamakura shogunate in 1192.
There are various hypotheses about the origin of the name. According to the most likely theory, Kamakura, surrounded as it is on three sides by mountains, was likened both to a cooking hearth (竃, kamado, kama) and to a warehouse (倉, kura), because both only have one side open.[10]
Another and more picturesque explanation is a legend, relating how
Kamakura period
The extraordinary events, the historical characters and the culture of the twenty years which go from Minamoto no Yoritomo's birth to the assassination of the last of his sons have been throughout Japanese history the background and the inspiration for countless poems, books, jidaigeki TV dramas, Kabuki plays, songs, manga and even videogames; and are necessary to make sense of much of what one sees in today's Kamakura.
Yoritomo, after the defeat and almost complete extermination of his family at the hands of the Taira clan, managed in the space of a few years to go from being a fugitive hiding from his enemies inside a tree trunk to being the most powerful man in the land. Defeating the Taira clan, Yoritomo became de facto ruler of much of Japan and founder of the Kamakura shogunate, an institution destined to last 141 years and to have immense repercussions over the country's history.
The Kamakura shogunate era is called by historians the Kamakura period and, although its end is clearly set (Siege of Kamakura (1333)), its beginning is not. Different historians put Kamakura's beginning at a different point in time within a range that goes from the establishment of Yoritomo's first military government in Kamakura (1180) to his elevation to the rank of Sei-i Taishōgun (征夷大将軍) in 1192.[17] It used to be thought that during this period, effective power had moved completely from the Emperor in Kyoto to Yoritomo in Kamakura, but the progress of research has revealed this was not the case.[17] Even after the consolidation of the shogunate's power in the east, the Emperor continued to rule the country, particularly its west.[17] However, it is undeniable that Kamakura had a certain autonomy and that it had surpassed the technical capital of Japan politically, culturally and economically.[17] The shogunate even reserved for itself an area in Kyoto called Rokuhara (六波羅) where lived its representatives, who were there to protect its interests.[17]
In 1179, Yoritomo married Hōjō Masako, an event of far-reaching consequences for Japan. In 1180, he entered Kamakura, building his residence in a valley called Ōkura (in today's Nishi Mikado). The stele on the spot reads:
737 years ago, in 1180, Minamoto no Yoritomo built his mansion here. Consolidated his power, he later ruled from home, and his government was therefore called Ōkura Bakufu (大蔵幕府). He was succeeded by his sons Yoriie and Sanetomo, and this place remained the seat of the government for 46 years until 1225, when his wife Hōjō Masako died. It was then transferred to Utsunomiya Tsuji (宇津宮辻).
Erected in March 1917 by the Kamakurachō Seinenkai
In 1185, his forces, commanded by his younger brother
In 1199, Yoritomo died falling from his horse at the age of 51, and was buried in a temple that had until then housed his tutelary goddess.
Yoritomo's second son and third shōgun
In 1293, a severe earthquake killed 23,000 people and seriously damaged the city. In the confusion following the quake, Hōjō Sadatoki, the Shikken of the Kamakura shogunate, carried out a purge against his subordinate Taira no Yoritsuna. In what is referred to as the Heizen Gate Incident, Yoritsuna and 90 of his followers were killed.
The Hōjō regency however continued until Nitta Yoshisada destroyed it in 1333 at the Siege of Kamakura. It was under the regency that Kamakura acquired many of its best and most prestigious temples and shrines, for example Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, Kenchō-ji, Engaku-ji, Jufuku-ji, Jōchi-ji, and Zeniarai Benten Shrine. The Hōjō family crest in the city is therefore still ubiquitous.
From the middle of the thirteenth century, the fact that the vassals (the gokenin) were allowed to become de facto owners of the land they administered, coupled to the custom that all gokenin children could inherit, led to the parcelization of the land and to a consequent weakening of the shogunate. This, and not lack of legitimacy, was the primary cause of the Hōjō's fall.
According to The Institute for Research on World-Systems,
Fall of the Kamakura shogunate
On July 3, 1333,[21] warlord Nitta Yoshisada, who was an Emperor loyalist, attacked Kamakura to reestablish imperial rule. After trying to enter by land through the Kewaizaka Pass and the Gokuraku-ji Pass, he and his forces waited for a low tide, bypassed the Inamuragasaki cape, entered the city and took it.[22]
In accounts of that disastrous Hōjō defeat it is recorded that nearly 900 Hōjō samurai, including the last three Regents, committed suicide at their family temple, Tōshō-ji, whose ruins have been found in today's Ōmachi. Almost the entire clan vanished at once, the city was sacked and many temples were burned.[b] Many simple citizens imitated the Hōjō, and an estimated total of over 6,000 died on that day of their own hand.[22] In 1953, 556 skeletons of that period were found during excavations near Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū's Ichi no Torii in Yuigahama, all of people who had died of a violent death, probably at the hand of Nitta's forces.
Muromachi and Edo periods
The fall of Kamakura marks the beginning of an era in Japanese history characterized by chaos and violence called the Muromachi period. Kamakura's decline was slow, and in fact the next phase of its history, in which, as the capital of the Kantō region, it dominated the east of the country, lasted almost as long as the shogunate had.[23] Kamakura would come out of it almost completely destroyed.[24]
The situation in Kantō after 1333 continued to be tense, with Hōjō supporters staging sporadic revolts here and there.[25] In 1335, Hōjō Tokiyuki, son of last regent Takatoki, tried to re-establish the shogunate by force and defeated Kamakura's de facto ruler Ashikaga Tadayoshi in Musashi, in today's Kanagawa Prefecture.[26] He was in his turn defeated in Koshigoe by Ashikaga Takauji, who had come in force from Kyoto to help his brother.[24][26]
Takauji, founder of the
Kamakura's ruler was called
A long period of chaos and war followed the departure of the last kantō kubō (the Sengoku period). Kamakura was heavily damaged in 1454 and almost completely burned during the Siege of Kamakura (1526).[24] Many of its citizens moved to Odawara when it came to prominence as the home town of the Later Hōjō clan.[22] The final blow to the city was the decision taken in 1603 by the Tokugawa shōgun to move the capital to nearby Edo, the place now called Tokyo.[22] The city never recovered and gradually returned to be the small fishing village it had been before Yoritomo's arrival.[22] Edmond Papinot's Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan, published in 1910 during the late Meiji period, describes it as follows:
Kamakura. A small town (7250 inh.) in Sagami which for several centuries was the second capital of Japan. [...] At present there remain of the splendor of the past only the famous Daibutsu and the Tsurugaoka Hachiman temple.[30]
Meiji period and the 20th century
After the
The shrine also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its tahōtō tower, its midō (御堂), and its shichidō garan.
In 1890, the railroad, which until then had arrived just to Ofuna, reached Kamakura bringing in tourists and new residents, and with them a new prosperity.[22] Part of the ancient Dankazura (see above) was removed to let the railway system's new Yokosuka Line pass.
The damage caused by time, centuries of neglect, politics, and modernization was further compounded by nature in 1923. The epicenter of the
Many temples founded centuries ago have required restoration, and it is for this reason that Kamakura has just one
Nichiren in Kamakura
Kamakura is known among Buddhists for having been the cradle of Nichiren Buddhism during the 13th century. Founder Nichiren was not a native; he was born in Awa Province, in today's Chiba Prefecture. But it was only natural for a preacher to come here because the city was the political centre of the country at the time.[38] Nichiren settled down in a straw hut in the Matsubagayatsu (literally transl. pine needle valley)[39] district, where three temples (Ankokuron-ji, Myōhō–ji, and Chōshō-ji), have been fighting for centuries for the honour of being the true heir of the master.[38] During his turbulent life Nichiren came and went, but Kamakura always remained at the heart of his religious activities. It is here that, when he was about to be executed by the Hōjō Regent for being a troublemaker, he was allegedly saved by a miracle; it is also in Kamakura that he wrote his famous Risshō Ankoku Ron (立正安国論), or 'Treatise on Peace and Righteousness', and that legend says he was rescued and fed by monkeys. Kamakura is also where he preached.[38]
Some Kamakura locations important to Nichiren Buddhism are:
- The three temples in Matsubagayatsu
Ankokuron-ji claims to have on its grounds the cave where the master, with the help of a white monkey, hid from his persecutors. Nearby Myōhō–ji (also called Koke-dera or 'Temple of Moss'), a much smaller temple, was erected in an area where Nichiren had his home for 19 years.[38] The third Nichiren temple in Nagoe, Chōshō-ji
- The Nichiren Tsujiseppō Ato (日蓮聖人辻説法跡) on Komachi Ōji in the Komachi district contains the very stone from which he used to harangue the crowds, claiming that the various calamities that were afflicting the city at the moment were due to the moral failings of its citizens.[38]
- The former execution ground at Katase's Ryūkō-ji where Nichiren was about to be beheaded (an event known to Nichiren's followers as the Tatsunokuchi Persecution (龍ノ口法難)), and where he was miraculously saved when thunder struck the executioner.[38] Nichiren had been condemned to death for having written the Risshō Ankoku Ron.[42] Every year, on September 12, Nichiren devotees gather to celebrate the anniversary of the miracle.[43]
- The
Notable locations
Kamakura has many historically significant Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, some of them, like Sugimoto-dera, over 1,200 years old. Kōtoku-in, with its monumental outdoor bronze statue of Amida Buddha, is the most famous. A 15th-century tsunami destroyed the temple that once housed the Great Buddha, but the statue survived and has remained outdoors ever since. This iconic Daibutsu is arguably amongst the few images which have come to represent Japan in the world's collective imagination. Kamakura also hosts the so-called Five Great Zen Temples (the Kamakura Gozan).
The architectural heritage of Kamakura is almost unmatched, and the city has proposed
Some of Kamakura's highlights are:
- The Asaina Pass and its Kumano Jinja
- Ankokuron-ji
- An'yō-in
- Chōju-ji, one of Ashikaga Takauji's two bodaiji (funeral temples)
- Engaku-ji, ranked Number Two among Kamakura's Great Zen Temples
- Hatakeyama Shigeyasu's grave
- Hōkai-ji, dedicated to the memory of the Hōjō clan
- Jōchi-ji, ranked Number Four among Kamakura's Great Zen Temples
- Jōmyō-jitemple, ranked Number Five among Kamakura's Great Zen Temples
- Jufuku-ji, ranked Number Three among Kamakura's Great Zen Temples
- Hase-dera
- Go-Daigo, was imprisoned and then beheaded by Ashikaga Tadayoshiin 1335.
- The Kamakura Museum of Literature, the former villa of Marquises Maeda
- Kamakura Museum of National Treasures
- Kanagawa Prefectural Ofuna Botanical Garden
- Kenchō-ji, ranked Number One among Kamakura's Great Zen Temples and, together with Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, the pride of the city
- Kōmyō-ji
- Kōtoku-in and its Great Buddha
- Meigetsu-in
- Moto Hachiman
- Myōhon-ji
- Ōfuna Kannon[44]
- Katase's Ryūkō-ji
- Sasuke Inari Shrine and Hidden Village
- The Shakadō Pass (see description below)
- Sugimoto-dera
- Tamanawa Castle, Castle ruins of Later Hōjō clan
- Tatsunokuchi, where Mongol emissaries were beheaded and buried.
- Tōkei-ji, famous in the past as a refuge for battered women
- Tomb of Minamoto no Yoritomo
- Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, symbol of the city
- Wakamiya Ōji Avenue with its three torii and cherry trees
- Yuigahama, a popular beach
- Zeniarai Benzaiten Shrine, where visitors go to wash their coins
- Zuisen-ji, funeral temple of the Ashikaga kubō, rulers in Kamakura during the early Muromachi period
Festivals and other events
Kamakura has many festivals (
January
- January 4: Chōna-hajimeshiki (手斧初式) at Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū: This event marks the beginning of the working year for local construction workers who, for the ceremony, use traditional working tools.[45] The festival also commemorates Minamoto no Yoritomo, who ordered the reconstruction of the main building of the shrine after it was destroyed by fire in 1191.[45] The ceremony takes place at 1:00 pm at Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū.[46]
February
- Day before the first day of spring (usually February 3): Setsubun Matsuri (節分祭) at Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, Hase-dera, Kamakura-gū, etc.: Celebration of the end of winter.[45] Soybeans are scattered in the air to ensure good luck.[45]
April
- 2nd to 3rd Sunday: Kamakura Matsuri at Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū and other locations: A whole week of events that celebrate the city and its history.[45]
May
- May 5: Kusajishi (草鹿) at the Kamakura Shrine: Archers in samurai gear shoot arrows at a straw deer while reciting old poems.[45]
August
- August 10 (or following Monday if it falls on a Saturday): A full hour of fireworks on the beach in Yuigahama.[46]
September
- September 14, 15 and 16: Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū Reitaisai (鶴岡八幡宮例大祭): Famous festival with many attractions, the most famous of which is the yabusame (流鏑馬), or Japanese horseback archery, which takes place on the 16th.[46]
Shakadō Pass
Besides the Seven Entrances there is another great pass in the city, the huge Shakadō Pass (釈迦堂切通), which connects Shakadōgayatsu[39] to the Ōmachi and Nagoe (formerly called Nagoshi) districts.
According to the plaque near the pass itself, the name derives from the fact that third
Although important, the pass was not considered one of the Entrances because it connected two areas both fully within Kamakura.[5] Its date of creation is unclear, as it is not explicitly mentioned in any historical record, and it could be therefore recent.[5] It seems very likely however that a pass which connected the Kanazawa Road to the Nagoe area called Inukakezaka (犬懸坂) and mentioned in the Genpei Jōsuiki (源平盛哀記) in relation to an 1180 war in Kotsubo between the Miura clan and the Hatakeyama clan is indeed the Shakadō Pass.[47] In any case, the presence of two yagura tombs within it means that it can be dated to at least the Kamakura period. It was then an important way of transit, but it was also much narrower than today and harder to pass.[47]
Inside the pass, there are two small yagura tombs containing some gorintō. On the Shakadōgayatsu side of the pass, just before the first houses a small street on the left takes to a large group of yagura called Shakadōgayatsu Yagura-gun.[47] There rest the bones of some of the hundreds of Hōjō family members who committed suicide at Tōshō-ji after the fall of Kamakura in 1333.[47]
The pass appears many times in some recent Japanese films like
On April 28, 2010, a day of heavy rain, a large section of rock on the Omachi side of the Shakado Pass gave way, making the road temporarily impassable for pedestrians.
Yagura tombs
An important and characteristic feature of Kamakura is a type of grave called yagura (やぐら).[48] Yagura are caves dug on the side of hills during the Middle Ages to serve as tombs for high-ranking personalities and priests.[48] Two famous examples are Hōjō Masako's and Minamoto no Sanetomo's cenotaphs in Jufuku-ji's cemetery, about 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) from Kamakura Station.
Usually present in the cemetery of most
The reason why they were dug is not known, but it is thought likely that the tradition started because of the lack of flat land within the narrow limits of Kamakura's territory. Started during the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the tradition seems to have declined during the following Muromachi period, when storehouses and cemeteries came to be preferred.
True yagura can be found also in the Miura Peninsula, in the Izu Peninsula, and even in distant Awa Province (Chiba).[48]
Tombs in caves can also be found in the
, however they are not called yagura and their relationship with those in Kanagawa Prefecture is unknown.Transportation
Rail
Kamakura Station is the terminal for the
Highway
Education
Kamakura has many educational facilities. The city operates sixteen public elementary schools and nine middle schools. The national government has one elementary and one middle school, and there are two private elementary and six private middle schools. At the next level are four prefectural and six private high schools. Also in Kamakura is a prefectural special school.
Kamakura Women's University is the city's sole university.
Government and administration
Kamakura has a mayor and a city council, all publicly elected. The mayor is Takashi Matsuo.[49] The City Council consists of 28 members.
Sister cities
Kamakura has six
- Nice, France (1966)[51]
- Ueda, Nagano, Japan (1979)
- Hagi, Yamaguchi, Japan (1979)
- Ashikaga, Tochigi, Japan (1982)
- Dunhuang, China (1998)
- Nashville, Tennessee, USA (2014)
loge
Kamakura has many historical houses. Tukikagetei is one of the famous houses. It had constructed 100 years ago in the Taisho era. But now, Fukagawa Geisha uses this house for their lives.
Notes
Citations
- ^ a b c d Hiking to Kamakura's Seven Entrances and Seven Passes, The Kamakura Citizen Net (in Japanese)
- ^ a b c Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008: 64)
- ^ a b Ōnuki (2008:50)
- ^ Yume Kōbō (2008:4)
- ^ a b c d e f Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008: 56–57)
- ^ Kamakura population statistics (from city website, in Japanese)
- ^ Kamakura population statistics (1995-2020)
- ^ a b Kamakura: History and the Historic Sites – Through the Heian Period, the Kamakura Citizen Net, retrieved on April 27, 2008
- ^ a b Takahashi (2005:8–10)
- ^ a b c Kamakura: History & Historic Sites – Origin of the Name Kamakura, the Kamakura Citizen Net, retrieved on April 27, 2008
- ^ Kurano (1958: 224–225)
- ^ Satake (2002: 315, 337)
- ^ Satake (2003: 393)
- ^ Minamoto (1966, 203–204)
- ISBN 978-4-490-20469-8
- ^ Weapons & Fighting Techniques Of The Samurai Warrior 1200–1877 AD. Retrieved June 24, 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Takahashi (2005:2)
- ^ a b c d e Kamakura: History & Historic Sites – The Kamakura Period, the Kamakura Citizen Net, retrieved on April 27, 2008
- ^ See article Tomb of Minamoto no Yoritomo
- ^ Cities, Empires and Global State Formation. Institute for Research on World-Systems
- Genkō 3, 21st day of the 5th month) using Nengocalc Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d e f g h Mutsu (1995/06: 19–40)
- ^ a b Matsuo (1997:V-VI)
- ^ a b c Papinot (1906:247–248)
- ^ a b Sansom (1977:22)
- ^ a b Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008:24–25)
- ^ a b c d Kokushi Daijiten (1983:542)
- ^ Jansen (1995:119–120)
- ^ Matsuo (1997:119–120)
- ^ Papinot (1972:247)
- ^ a b c Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008: 28)
- ^ See article Jufuku-ji
- ^ See article Meigetsu-in
- ^ Hammer (2006: 278)
- ^ Hammer (2006: 115–116).
- ^ Hammer (2006:116)
- ^ Kamakura: History and the Historic Sites – Kamakura in the Modern era (the Meiji period) and following sections, The Kamakura Citizen net, retrieved on April 5, 2008]
- ^ a b c d e f g h Mutsu (1995/06: 258–271)
- ^ a b The ending "ヶ谷", common in place names and usually read "-gaya", in Kamakura is normally pronounced "-gayatsu", as in Shakadōgayatsu, Ōgigayatsu, and Matsubagayatsu.
- ^ Shakyamuni Buddha and His Supporters, Nichirenshu.org, retrieved on May 25, 2008
- ^ Photo of Hosshō-ji's gate with its sculpted white monkeys
- ^ a b c Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008: 46)
- ^ Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008: 186)
- ^ See also Ofuna Kannonji Temple Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d e f g h Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008: 170–188)
- ^ a b c Kamakura City's List of Festivals and Events
- ^ a b c d e f Kamiya Vol. 1 (2006/08: 71 – 72)
- ^ a b c d e f Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008: 35 – 36)
- ^ "鎌倉市長のページ / 鎌倉市". Archived from the original on 2008-04-05. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
- ^ Introduction to Kamakura かまくら GreenNet Archived 2008-04-02 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Villes jumelées avec la Ville de Nice" (in French). Ville de Nice. Archived from the original on October 29, 2012. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
General and cited references
- ISBN 978-0-521-22354-6.
- Hammer, Joshua (2006). Yokohama Burning: The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II. New York: ISBN 978-0-7432-6465-5(cloth)
- Harada, Hiroshi (2007). Kamakura no Koji (in Japanese). JTB Publishing. ISBN 978-4-533-07104-1.
- OCLC 31515317
- Kamakura City's List of Festivals and Events (in Japanese)
- Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008). Kamakura Kankō Bunka Kentei Kōshiki Tekisutobukku (in Japanese). Kamakura: Kamakura Shunshūsha. ISBN 978-4-7740-0386-3.
- Kamakura Today: Annual Events (in English)
- Kamiya, Michinori (August 2000). Fukaku Aruku – Kamakura Shiseki Sansaku Vol. 1 (in Japanese). Kamakura: Kamakura Shunshūsha. ISBN 4-7740-0340-9.
- Kita-Kamakura Yūsui Network (2008). Gaidobukku ni Noranai Kita-Kamakura (in Japanese). Yume Kōbō. ISBN 978-4-86158-026-0.
- Kokushi Daijiten Iinkai. Kokushi Daijiten (in Japanese). Vol. 3 (1983 ed.).
- Kurano, Kenji; Yūkichi Takeda (1958). Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei 1: Kojiki. ISBN 4-00-060001-X.
- Matsu, Ri (2012). Everyday Kamakura. DigitalKu. ISBN 978-1-4700-3285-2.
- Matsuo, Kenji (1997). Chūsei Toshi Kamakura wo Aruku (in Japanese). Tokyo: Chūkō Shinsho. ISBN 4-12-101392-1.
- ISBN 4-653-00508-7.
- Mutsu, Iso (June 1995). Kamakura: Fact and Legend. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1968-8.
- Ōnuki, Akihiko (2008). Kamakura. Rekishi to Fushigi wo Aruku (in Japanese). Tokyo: Jitsugyō no Nihonsha. ISBN 978-4-408-59306-7.
- Papinot, Edmond (1910). Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan (Japanese ed.). Tuttle. ISBN 0-8048-0996-8.
- ISBN 4-8053-0375-1.
- Satake, Akihiro; Hideo Yamada; Rikio Kudō; Masao Ōtani; Yoshiyuki Yamazaki (2002). Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei: Man'yōshū 3 (in Japanese). ISBN 4-00-240003-4.
- Satake, Akihiro; Hideo Yamada; Rikio Kudō; Masao Ōtani; Yoshiyuki Yamazaki (2003). Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei: Man'yōshū 4 (in Japanese). ISBN 4-00-240004-2.
- Takahashi, Shin'ichirō (2005). Buke no koto, Kamakura (in Japanese). Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppansha. ISBN 4-634-54210-2.
External links
- Official Website (in Japanese)
- Kanagawa Official Tourism Website (in English)
- Geographic data related to Kamakura at OpenStreetMap