Kanchipuram

Coordinates: 12°49′07″N 79°41′41″E / 12.818500°N 79.694700°E / 12.818500; 79.694700
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(Redirected from
Kanchi
)
For other uses, see Kanchipuram (disambiguation).
This article is about the Municipal Corporation in Tamil Nadu, India. For its namesake district, see Kanchipuram district.

Kanchipuram
Conjeevaram
UTC+5:30 (IST)
PIN
631501-631503
Telephone code044
Vehicle registrationTN-21
Websitetnurbantree.tn.gov.in/kancheepuram/

Kanchipuram (

Kanchipuram District
. Kanchipuram is well-connected by road and rail.

Kanchipuram is a

Kailasanathar Temple and the Vaikunta Perumal Temple. Historically, Kanchipuram was a centre of education[4] and was known as the ghatikasthanam, or "place of learning".[5] The city was also a religious centre of advanced education for Jainism and Buddhism between the 1st and 5th centuries.[6]

In the Vaishnavism Hindu theology, Kanchipuram is one of the seven Tirtha (pilgrimage) sites, for spiritual release.[7] The city houses Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Ekambareswarar Temple, Kamakshi Amman Temple, and Kumarakottam Temple which are some of major Hindu temples in the state. Of the 108 holy temples of the Hindu god Vishnu, 15 are located in Kanchipuram.[8]

The city is most important to Sri Vaishnavism, Shaktism and then Shaivism. Most of the city's workforce is involved in the weaving industry.[9]

Kanchipuram is administered by a Special grade municipality constituted in 1947. It is the headquarters of the

Pallava Kingdom
between the 4th and 9th centuries.

Kanchipuram has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for

HRIDAY - Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana
scheme of Government of India.

Etymology

Kanchipuram was known in early Tamil and Sanskrit literature as Kanchi or Kachipedu.[10] In the Sanskrit the word is split into two: ka and anchi. Ka means Brahma and anchi means worship,[citation needed] showing that Kanchi stands for the place where Varadharaja Perumal was worshipped by Brahma. Brahma has sculpted Athi Varadhar and worshipped here. In Sanskrit the term Kanci means girdle and explanation is given that the city is like a girdle to the earth.[11] The earliest Sanskrit inscriptions from the Gupta period (early 4th century-CE to late 5th century-CE) denote the city as Kanchipuram, where King Visnugopa was defeated by Samudragupta.[12] Patanjali (150 BCE or 2nd century BCE)[citation needed] refers to the city in his Mahabhasya as Kanchipuraka.[12] The city was referred to by various names like Kanchi, Kanchipedu and Kanchipuram.[10][12] The Pallava inscriptions from (250–355) and the inscriptions of the Chalukya dynasty refer the city as Kanchipura.[12] Jaina Kanchi refers to the area around Tiruparutti Kundram.[12] During the British rule, the city was known as Conjeevaram[1] and later as Kanchipuram. The municipal administration was renamed Kancheepuram, while the district and city retains the name Kanchipuram.[13][14]

It finds its mention in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi as Kanchi-prastha and in several Puranas. It is also one of the seven cities that provides liberation.[citation needed]

History

See also: Kanchipuram in the pre-Pallava period
precinct of a temple with sculptures on either side
Sculptures inside Kanchipuram Kailasanathar Temple – the oldest existing temple in the city

The earliest references to Kanchipuram are found in the books of the Sanskrit grammarian

Early Chola capital,[18][19] the claim has been contested by Indian historian P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar who wrote that the Tamil culture of the Sangam period did not spread through the Kanchipuram district and cites the Sanskritic origins of its name in support of his claim.[15]

Kanchipuram grew in importance when the Pallavas of southern

Iravatanesvara Temple.[24] Xuanzang, a Chinese traveller who visited Kanchipuram in 640, recorded that the city was 6 miles (9.7 km) in circumference and that its people were renowned for their bravery, piety, love of justice and veneration for learning.[21][25]

The Medieval Chola king

Prataparudra II, Kanchipuram was conquered by the Vijayanagara general Kumara Kampana, who defeated the Madurai Sultanate in 1361.[14]

The

Venkata II (1586–1614) tried to revive the Vijayanagara Empire, but the kingdom relapsed into confusion after his death and rapidly fell apart after the Vijayanagara king Sriranga III's defeat by the Golconda and Bijapur sultanates in 1646.[14]

After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Kanchipuram endured over two decades of political turmoil.

Aurangazeb in October 1687.[14]In the course of their southern campaign, the Mughals defeated the Marathas under Sambhaji, the elder son of Shivaji, in a battle near Kanchipuram in 1688[14] which caused considerable damage to the city but cemented Mughal rule.[14] Soon after, the priests at the Varadharaja Perumal, Ekambareshwarar and Kamakshi Amman temples, mindful of Aurangazeb's reputation for iconoclasm, transported the idols to southern Tamil Nadu and did not restore them until after Aurangzeb's death in 1707.[14] Under the Mughals, Kanchipuram was part of the viceroyalty of the Carnatic which, in the early 1700s, began to function independently, retaining only a nominal acknowledgement of Mughal rule.[14] The Marathas ruled Kanchipuram due to Islamic invasion during the Carnatic period in 1724 and 1740, and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1742.[37]

painting depicting attack by modern weapon resulting in army getting blasted
The Battle of Pollilur, fought near Kanchipuram in 1780

Kanchipuram was a battlefront for the

Sultanate of Mysore.[38]The popular 1780 Battle of Pollilur of the Second Anglo-Mysore War, known for the use of rockets by Hyder Ali of Mysore, was fought in the village of Pullalur near Kanchipuram.[39] In 1763, the British East India Company assumed indirect control from the Nawab of the Carnatic over the erstwhile Chingleput District, comprising the present-day Kanchipuram and Tiruvallur districts, in order to defray the expenses of the Carnatic wars.[14] The Company brought the territory under their direct control during the Second Anglo-Mysore War, and the Collectorate of Chingleput was created in 1794.[14] The district was split into two in 1997 and Kanchipuram made the capital of the newly created Kanchipuram district.[14]

Geography

Kanchipuram is located at 12°50′19″N 79°42′06″E / 12.8387°N 79.7016°E / 12.8387; 79.7016, 72 km (45 mi) south-west of Chennai on the banks of the Vegavathi River, a tributary of the

Seismic Zone II region,[43] and earthquakes of up to magnitude 6 on the Richter Scale may be expected.[44]
Kanchipuram is subdivided into two divisions –

  1. Big Kanchi, also called Shiva Kanchi, occupies the western portion of the city and is the larger of the two divisions;
  2. Little Kanchi, also called Vishnu Kanchi, is located on the eastern fringes of the city.[41][45]

Most of the Shiva temples were in Big Kanchipuram while most of the Vishnu temples were in Little Kanchipuram.[41]

Groundwater is the major source of water supplies used for irrigation – the block of Kanchipuram has 24 canals, 2809 tanks, 1878 tube wells and 3206 ordinary wells.[46] The area is rich in medicinal plants, and historic inscriptions mention the medicinal value.[47] Dimeria acutipes and Cynodon barberi are plants found only in Kanchipuram and Chennai.[48]

Climate

Kanchipuram has a

tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen Aw), which is generally healthy.[49] Temperatures reach an average maximum of 37.5 °C (99.5 °F) between April and July, and an average minimum of 16 °C (60.8 °F) between December and February.[49][49] Relative humidities of between 58% and 84% prevail throughout the year.[49] The humidity reaches its peak during the morning and is lowest in the evening. The relative humidity is higher between November and January and is lowest throughout June.[49]

Most of the rain occurs in the form of cyclonic storms caused by depressions in the Bay of Bengal during the northeast monsoon.[49] Kanchipuram receives rainfall from both Northeast Monsoon and Southwest Monsoon. The highest single day rainfall recorded in Kanchipuram is 450 millimetres or 17.72 inches on 10 October 1943. The prevailing wind direction is south-westerly in the morning and south-easterly in the evening. In 2015, Kanchipuram district registered the highest rainfall of 182 centimetres or 71.65 inches in Tamil Nadu during Northeast Monsoon season. On 13 November 2015, Kanchipuram recorded a mammoth 340 millimetres or 13.39 inches of rain, thereby causing severe flooding.[50]

Climate data for Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 29.1
(84.4) 		31.2
(88.2) 		33.4
(92.1) 		35.6
(96.1) 		38.2
(100.8) 		37.2
(99.0) 		35.2
(95.4) 		34.7
(94.5) 		34.1
(93.4) 		32.1
(89.8) 		29.3
(84.7) 		28.5
(83.3) 		33.2
(91.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 19.2
(66.6) 		19.8
(67.6) 		22.0
(71.6) 		25.4
(77.7) 		27.3
(81.1) 		27.0
(80.6) 		25.9
(78.6) 		25.4
(77.7) 		24.8
(76.6) 		23.7
(74.7) 		21.6
(70.9) 		19.9
(67.8) 		23.5
(74.3)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 25
(1.0) 		6
(0.2) 		4
(0.2) 		19
(0.7) 		59
(2.3) 		77
(3.0) 		108
(4.3) 		173
(6.8) 		132
(5.2) 		185
(7.3) 		209
(8.2) 		107
(4.2) 		1,104
(43.4)
Source: Climate-Data.org[51]

Government and politics

map showing boundaries of a state
Kanchipuram Loksabha constituency
Municipal Corporation Officials
[52]Mayor M. Mahalakshmi
Corporation Commissioner [53]G. Kannan
[54]Deputy Mayor R. Kumaragurunathan
Elected Members
Member of Legislative Assembly C.V.M.P.Ezhilarasan[55]
Member of Parliament G Selvam[56]

The Kanchipuram municipality was officially constituted in 1866,

Kanchipuram City Municipal Corporation.[60]

Kanchipuram comes under the

All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK).[61] Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) won the seat during the 1971 and 1989 elections and its ally Pattali Makkal Katchi won the seat during the 2006 elections.[61] The current member of the legislative assembly is V. Somasundaram from the AIADMK party.[61][55]

post-colonial India.[64][65]

Policing in the city is provided by the Kanchipuram sub-division of the Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent of Police.[66] The force's special units include prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division, which is headed by a Superintendent of Police.[66]

Demographics

House with thatched roof
A house depicting old living style of Kanchipuram

During the rule of King Narasimha Varma in the 7th century, the city covered about 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) and had a population of 10,000.

Tiruvekka temple and houses of agricultural labourers were situated outside the city.[72]
There were provisions in the city's outskirts for training the cavalry and infantry.

During the Chola era, Kanchipuram was not the capital, but the kings had a palace in the city and a lot of development was extended eastwards.[71] During the Vijayanagara period, the population rose to 25,000.[71] There were no notable additions to the city's infrastructure during British rule.[71] The British census of 1901 recorded that Kanchipuram had a population of 46,164, consisting of 44,684 Hindus, 1,313 Muslims, 49 Christians and 118 Jains.[21]

Religious census
Religion Percent(%)
Hindu
 
 93.38%
Muslim
 
 5.24%
Christian
 
 0.83%
Jain
 
 0.4%
Sikh
 
 0.01%
Buddhist
 
 0.01%
Other
 
 0.11%
No religion
 
 0.01%

Distribution of languages in Kanchipuram Urban(2011)[73]

  Tamil (87.43%)
  Telugu (6.05%)
  Urdu (2.45%)
  Gujarati (1.96%)
  Hindi (0.98%)
  Kannada (0.70%)
  Others (0.42%)

According to

Buddhists, 0.4% Jains, 0.11% following other religions and 0.01% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.[77]

Kanchipuram has 416 hectares (1,030 acres) of residential properties, mostly around the temples. The commercial area covers 62 hectares (150 acres), constituting 6.58% of the city. Industrial developments occupy around 65 hectares (160 acres), where most of the handloom spinning, silk weaving, dyeing and rice production units are located. 89.06 hectares (220.1 acres) are used for transport and communications infrastructure, including bus stands, roads, streets and railways lines.[78]

Economy

Agricultural workers in paddy field
Agriculture in Kanchipuram
weaving with threads hanging from a loom
Silk sari weaving at Kanchipuram

The major occupations of Kanchipuram are silk sari weaving and agriculture.[21] As of 2008, an estimated 5,000 families were involved in sari production.[79] The main industries are cotton production, light machinery and electrical goods manufacturing, and food processing.[80] There are 25 silk and cotton yarn industries, 60 dyeing units, 50 rice mills and 42 other industries in Kanchipuram.[81] Another important occupation is tourism and service related segments like hotels, restaurants and local transportation.[81]

Kanchipuram Saree

Raja Raja Chola I (985–1014) invited weavers from Saurashtra, Gujarat to migrate to Kanchi.[79] The craft increased with the mass migration of weavers from Andhra Pradesh in the 15th century during the Vijayanagara rule.[79] The city was razed during the French siege of 1757, but weaving re-emerged in the late 18th century.[79]

All major nationalised banks such as Vijaya Bank, State Bank of India, Indian Bank, Canara Bank, Punjab National Bank, Dena Bank and private banks like ICICI Bank have branches in Kanchipuram.[84] All these banks have their Automated teller machines located in various parts of the city.[84]

Human rights

Kanchipuram has more than the national average rate of child labour and bonded labour.[85][86] The local administration is accused of aiding child labour by opening night schools in Kanchipuram from 1999.[85] There is an estimated 40,000 to 50,000 child workers in Kanchipuram compared to 85,000 in the same industry in Varanasi.[86] Children are commonly traded for sums of between ₹ 10,000 and 15,000 (200 – $300) and there are cases where whole families are held in bondage.[86] Child labour is prohibited in India by the Children (Pledging of Labour) Act and Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, but these laws are not strictly enforced.[87]

Transport, communication, and utility services

A bus in a road with trees in the background
An intercity state bus to Kanchipuram
image of railway station board in a platform
The railway station in Kanchipuram

The Chennai – Bangalore National Highway,

Pondicherry.[89] There are two major bus routes to Chennai, one connecting via Poonamallee and the other via Tambaram.[89] Local bus services are provided by The Villupuram division of Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation.[90] As of 2006, there were a total of 403 buses for 191 routes operated out of the city.[91]

The city is also connected to the railway network through the Kanchipuram railway station. The Chengalpet – Arakkonam railway line passes through Kanchipuram and travellers can access services to those destinations.[92] Daily trains are provided to Pondicherry and Tirupati, and there is a weekly express train to Madurai and a bi-weekly express train to Nagercoil.[93] Two passenger trains from both sides of Chengalpattu and Arakkonam pass via Kanchipuram.[89][93]

The nearest domestic as well as international airport is Chennai International Airport, located at a distance of 72 km from the city. The proposed New Chennai International Airport is to be built in Parandhur near Kanchipuram.

Telephone and broadband internet services are provided by

Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB).[95] Water supply is provided by the Kanchipuram municipality; supplies are drawn from subterranean springs of Vegavati river.[21] The head works is located at Orikkai, Thiruparkadal and St. Vegavathy, and distributed through overhead tanks with a total capacity of 9.8 litres (2.2 imperial gallons).[96] About 55 tonnes of solid waste are collected from the city daily at five collection points covering the whole of the city.[97] The sewage system in the city was implemented in 1975; Kanchipuram was identified as one of the hyper endemic cities in 1970. Underground drainage covers 82% of roads in the city, and is divided into east and west zones for internal administration.[98]

Education

See also: List of schools and colleges in Kanchipuram

Kanchipuram is traditionally a centre of religious education for the Hindu,[4][5] Jainism[6] and Buddhism faiths.

Mahendra Varman I, the Hindu educational system gained prominence with Sanskrit emerging as the official language.[6]

As of 2011[update] Kanchipuram has 49 registered schools, 16 of which are run by the city municipality.[99] The district administration opened night schools for educating children employed in the silk weaving industry – as of December 2001, these schools together were educating 127 people and 260 registered students from September 1999.[85] Larsen & Toubro inaugurated the first rail construction training centre in India at Kanchipuram on 24 May 2012, that can train 300 technicians and 180 middle-level managers and engineers each year.[100] Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya and Chettinad Academy of Research and Education (CARE) are the two Deemed universities present in Kanchipuram.[101] The very famous 65-year-old college- founded by Vallal Pachaiyappar– Pachaiyappa's College for Men- is on the banks of Vegavathi River. It offers UG and PG courses in various subjects.It is the only Govt aided institute in Kanchipuram Taluk.

Kanchipuram is home to one of the four Indian Institute of Information Technology, a public private partnered institute, offering undergraduate and post graduate programs in information technology.[102] The city has two medical colleges – Arignar Anna Memorial Cancer Institute and Hospital, established in 1969, is operated by the Department of Health, Government of Tamil Nadu[103] and the privately owned Meenakshi Medical College.[104] The city has 6 engineering colleges,[105] 3 polytechnic institutes and 6 arts and science colleges.[106]

Religion

Hinduism

Main article: List of temples in Kanchipuram
temple tower with a lake in the foreground
Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple – An old Authentic Vaishnavite temple in the city

Hindus regard Kanchipuram to be one of the seven holiest cities in India, the

Saivites .[72]

gopura was built by the later Chola kings. It is one of the Divya Desams, the 108 holy abodes of Maha Vishnu.[112] The temple features carved lizards, one plated with gold and another with silver, over the sanctum.[113] Robert Clive is said to have presented an emerald necklace to the temple. It is called the Clive Makarakandi and is still used to decorate the deity on ceremonial occasions.[14]
This temple is the main reason for the city to get its name Kanchi. In the Sanskrit the word is split into two: ka and anchi. Ka means Brahma and anchi means worship, showing that Kanchi stands for the place where Varadharaja Perumal was worshipped by Brahma. Brahma has sculpted Athi Varadhar and worshipped here.

Alvar saint, Poigai Alvar.[114]
The temple finds mention in Perumpaanatrupadai written by Patanjali. There is a mention about the temple in Silappatikaram (2nd-3rd century CE), Patanjali Mahabharatham and Tolkāppiyam (3rd century BCE). The temple is revered in Nalayira Divya Prabandham, the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by Poigai Alvar, Peyalvar, Bhoothathalvar and Thirumalisai Avar.

Tiru Parameswara Vinnagaram The central shrine has a three-tier shrine, one over the other, with Vishnu depicted in each of them.[114] The corridor around the sanctum has a series of sculptures depicting the Pallava rule and conquest.[114] It is the oldest Vishnu temple in the city and was built by the Pallava king Paramesvaravarman II (728–731).[114]

Tiru pavla vannam, Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple are among the Divya Desams, the 108 famous temples of Vishnu in the city.[115] There are five other Divya Desams, three inside the Ulagalantha Perumal temple, one each in Kamakshi Amman Temple and Ekambareswarar Temple respectively.[116]

Pancha Bhoota Stalams, which represent the manifestation of the five prime elements of nature; namely land, water, air, sky, and fire. There is also a 108 holy site of Maha Vishnu temple inside the Ekambaranathar temple called Chandrachuda Perumal or Nilathingal Thundam Perumal temple.[118] Ekambareswarar temple represents earth.[118]

Kailasanathar Temple, dedicated to Shiva and built by the Pallavas, is the oldest Hindu temple in existence and is declared an archaeological monument by the Archaeological Survey of India. It has a series of cells with sculptures inside.[119]

In the

Kanchi matha after this temple.[121]

Muktheeswarar Temple, built by

Iravatanesvara Temple built by Narasimhavarman Pallava II (720–728) are the other Shiva temples from the Pallava period. Kachi Metrali – Karchapeswarar Temple,[119] Onakanthan Tali,[122] Kachi Anekatangapadam,[122] Kuranganilmuttam,[123]
and Karaithirunathar Temple in Tirukalimedu are the Shiva temples in the city revered in Tevaram, the Tamil Saiva canonical work of the 7th–8th centuries.

Two pillars with hanging stone chain
Sculpted pillars and stone chain in Varadharaja Perumal Temple

Muruga, is located between the Ekambareswarar temple and Kamakshi Amman temple, leading to the cult of Somaskanda (Skanda, the child between Shiva and Parvati). Kandapuranam, the Tamil religious work on Muruga, translated from Sanskrit Skandapurana, was composed in 1625 by Kachiappa Shivacharya in the temple.[124]

The

Sringeri Matha, and that it declared itself independent.[126]

Another matha which was famous in ancient times was the Upanishad Bramham Mutt, located near Kailasanathar temple, Kanchipuram. It has the Mahasamadhi of Upanishad Brahmayogin, a saint who wrote commentaries on all the major Upanishads in Hinduism. It is said that the great Sage, Sadasiva Brahmendra took to sanyasa at this matha.

Injimedu is also called Yagna Vedhikai, as many yagna rituals are performed in the village. It is located at 3 km from Pernamallur Town. The best route to go injimedu is

  1. Kanchipuram-Cheyyaru-Pernamallur-Injimedu
  2. Tambaram-Uthiramerur-Vandavasi-Mazhaiyur(Chetpet Road)-Chinna kozhipuliyur-Injimedu.

Buddhism

Drawing depicting a saint in a background of trees
Bodhidharma is believed to have spread Zen school of Buddhism from India to China

Buddhism is believed to have flourished in Kanchipuram between the 1st and 5th centuries.

Burmese and Thai people.[133]

A number of bronzes unearthed at Kurkihar (Apanaka Vihara, near Gaya in Bihar) mention that the majority of the donors were from Kanchi, indicating that Kurkihar was a major center for the visitors from Kanchi during 9th to 11th century,

Jainism

Main article: Trilokyanatha Temple
Trilokyanatha Temple
Painted ceiling with Jain munis

Kanchipuram had been a major center of Jainism and is associated with several well-known Jain Acharyas like Samantabhadra and

Adi Sankara and Ramanuja respectively.[72][134] Later Cholas and Vijayanagara kings tolerated Jainism, and the religion was still practised in Kanchi.[130]

The original set of the

Jina Kanchi
institution Mutt was in Kanchipuram. Its original site is now represented by the
Jina Kanchi Mutt was later shifted to Melsithamur, near Gingee in the Villupuram district in the 16th century. There exist many historical Jain sites in the vicinity of Kanchipuram in several villages that still have some Jain population.[136]

Other religions

The city has two mosques; one near the Ekambareswarar temple, was built during the rule of Nawab of Arcot in the 17th century, and another near the Vaikunta Perumal temple, shares a common tank with the Hindu temple. Muslims take part in the festivals of the Varadharaja (Swamy) temple.[137] Christ Church is the oldest Christian church in the city. It was built by a British man named Mclean in 1921. The church is built in Scottish style brick structure with arches and pillars.[137]

See also

Notes

Footnotes

  • ^ The official spelling, as per the municipality website, is "Kancheepuram".[138] However, the spelling Kanchipuram is the most widely used name.

Citations

  1. ^ a b Malalasekera 1973, pp. 112–13.
  2. ^ a b Kanchipuram : Census 2011.
  3. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Conjeeveram" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 943.
  4. ^ a b Rao 2008, p. xviii.
  5. ^ a b K.V. 1975, p. 80.
  6. ^ a b c d Thapar 2001, pp. 344–345.
  7. ISBN 978-1-62356-623-4
    .
  8. ^ Gupta 2001, p. 51.
  9. ^ Kanchipuram Industrial profile 2012.
  10. ^ a b K.V. 1975, p. 6.
  11. ^ http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/39511/7/07_chapter%202.pdf Archived 17 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine p.no 7
  12. ^ a b c d e Sharma 1978, p. 255.
  13. ^ a b c About municipality 2011.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab K.V. 1975, pp. 26–39.
  15. ^ a b c Iyengar 1929, pp. 322–333.
  16. ^ Historical Importance of Kanchipuram 2011.
  17. ISBN 978-93-83440-34-4
    .
  18. ^ Kamath 2000, p. 127.
  19. ^ Hoiberg 2000.
  20. ^ Pochhammer 2005, p. 99.
  21. ^ a b c d e f Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908, pp. 544–546.
  22. ^ a b Keay 2001, p. 170.
  23. ^ Sastri 2008, p. 136.
  24. ^ Jouveau-Dubreuil 1994, p. 71.
  25. ^ Smith 1914, p. 473.
  26. ^ Sastri 1935, p. 113.
  27. ^ Aiyangar 2004, p. 60.
  28. ^ a b K.V. 1975, pp. 11–26.
  29. ^ a b Rao 2008, p. 126.
  30. ^ Rao 2008, p. 127.
  31. ^ Sastri 1935, p. 210.
  32. ^ Sastri 1935, p. 420.
  33. ^ Aiyangar 2004, p. 34.
  34. ^ Sastri 1935, p. 428.
  35. ^ Aiyangar 2004, p. 49.
  36. ^ Aiyangar 2004, p. 61.
  37. ^ K.V. 1975, p. 48.
  38. ^ Jaques 2007, p. 257.
  39. ^ R.G. 2011, p. 468.
  40. ^ a b c About City 2011.
  41. ^ a b c d e K.V. 1975, pp. 1–4.
  42. ^ Srinivasan 1979, p. 6.
  43. ^ Seismic Zoning map 2008.
  44. ^ Seismology glossary 2008.
  45. ^ Browne 1843, p. 228.
  46. ^ Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India 2007, p. 5.
  47. ^ The Hindu & 19 May 2012.
  48. ^ The Hindu & 18 June 2012.
  49. ^ a b c d e f Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India 2007, p. 6.
  50. ^ Kanchipuram local plan 2006, p. 1.
  51. ^ "CLIMATE: KANCHEEPURAM". Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
  52. ^ Kanchipuram Municipality – Chairman 2011.
  53. ^ Kanchipuram Municipality – Commissioner 2011, p. 54.
  54. ^ Vice-Chairman of Kanchipuram municipality 2011.
  55. ^ a b MLA of Kanchipuram 2011.
  56. ^ a b MP of Kanchipuram 2019.
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References

External links

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