Vijayanagara literature in Kannada
Vijayanagara literature in Kannada is the body of literature composed in the
The development of Veerashaiva literature was at its peak during the reign of King Deva Raya II, the best-known of the Sangama dynasty rulers.[8] The rule of King Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty and his successors was a high point in Vaishnava literature.[9] The influence of Jain literature, which had dominated Kannada language in the previous centuries, was on the wane with increasing competition from the resurgent Veerashaiva faith and Vaishnava bhakti movement (devotional movement of the haridasas).[10] Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures left lasting influences that continued after the Vijayanagara era.[11]
Court literature
Overview
Before the 12th century, Jain writers had dominated Kannada literature with their champu (verses mixed with prose) style of writings popular in court literature. In the later medieval period, they had to contend with the Veerashaivas who challenged the very notion of royal literature with their
This significant shift in the literary landscape was coupled with major political changes that were taking place in southern India in the early 14th century. With the decline of the regional Hindu kingdoms, the Vijayanagara Empire had risen as a bulwark against Muslim incursions from the north while creating an atmosphere conducive to development of the fine arts.[16][17] In an important age of Kannada literature, competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers came to the fore. Literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects.[6] With the exception of the best-known writers from these faiths, many authors produced lesser quality writings with a sectarian and propagandist bent.[18]
The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other: the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty; and the Bhakti (devotion) poets who played no role in courtly matters, instead taking the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres. Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well known among the Brahmin commentators, while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most famous of the Bhakti writers.[19] The philosophy of Madhvacharya, which originated in the Kannada–speaking region in the 13th century, spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries. The itinerant haridasas, best described as mystic saint-poets, spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada, winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana (enlightenment), bhakti (devotion) and vairagya (detachment).[12][20]
This was the age of the shatpadi metre, although only the most skilled of poets, such as Chamarasa, Kumara Vyasa, Kanaka Dasa and Bhaskara used it to the best effect.[21] Mentioned for the first time in Kannada literature by Nagavarma I in his Chhandombudhi (c. 990) and successfully used by the 12th century Hoysala poet Raghavanka,[22] this hexa-metre style suited for narrative poetry found immense popularity throughout the Vijayanagara period.[23] The shataka metre (string of 100 verses) was put to best use by the Veerashaivas who produced most of the didactic writings in this metre, although the Jain poet Ratnakaravarni is the most famous exponent of it. The writings of Ratnakaravarni and Kanaka Dasa in sangatya metre are considered masterpieces from this period.[21]
In the royal courts, there was increased interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, continuing a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well-known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. Some Telugu poets, including Dhurjati, were so well versed in Kannada that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. It was because of this "familiarity" with Kannada language that the notable writer Srinatha called his Telugu writings "Kannada". Translations by bilingual writers continued in the centuries to follow.[24]
With the disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the centres of Kannada literature moved to the courts of the emerging independent kingdoms, the
In the Kingdom of Mysore, the Veerashaiva literary school was challenged by the growing influence of the
Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata, as well as the Vedanta and other subjects from the Hindu puranic traditions.[28] This was the age of Kumara Vyasa, an influential Vaishnava poet and a doyen of medieval Kannada epic poetry. Historians have drawn parallels between Adikavi Pampa (c. 941) and Kumaraya Vyasa, while identifying fundamental differences in their style. Both are considered masters of their respective periods; while Pampa is identified as a stylist of the classical age, Kumara Vyasa is considered a generalist of the medieval age. Unlike Pampa, a product of the marga (Sanskritic-mainstream) period of Kannada literature, Kumara Vyasa successfully wielded the flexibility of the desi (native) shatpadi metre, which used a range of language that included metaphors, similes, humour and even vulgarity.[29]
Kumara Vyasa wrote Gadugina Bharata in 1430 in the
Inspired by Kumara Vyasa, the first complete
The early Bhagavata writings in Sanskrit by well-known acharyas (gurus) were solely meant to have a proselytising effect on the masses, encouraging them to a theistic way of life and belief in the god Krishna.
Veerashaiva writings
The Veerashaiva writers were devotees of the Hindu god Shiva, his 25 forms, and the expositions of
Bhima Kavi paved the way for the shatpadi metre tradition in his work Basavapurana (c.1369), a form first experimented with by the 12th century
The author starts with Basavanna's birth and weaves episodes of other famous sharanas (devotees of Hindu god Shiva)—such as Allama Prabhu—into his life history. Basavanna is depicted as a saintly person, a great devotee of Shiva, an incarnation of
Chamarasa, Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya flourished under the patronage of King Deva Raya II.
Lakkanna Dandesa, the king's prime minister and provincial governor, wrote an encyclopedia on the beliefs and rites of the Veerashaiva faith titled Sivatattva Chintamani. This work is an account of the life of Basavanna, the progenitor of the faith, and hundreds of his followers, making it valuable material for students of the Lingayat movement.[47] Numerous references are made in this work to the capital city of Vijayanagara and its suburbs.[5] Jakkanarya, a minister in the court, not only wrote Nurondusthala (one hundred and one stories) but also was patron to Kumarabanka Natha and Mahalinga Deva, poet-saints who wrote vachana poems and books on the Shaiva philosophy (called shatsthala).[6][9] Other writers of the 15th century worthy of mention are Kavi Linga (1490), court poet of King Saluva Narasimha I, Adrisappa (Praudaraya Charitra),[48] Bommarasa (Soundara Purana), Kallarasa (Janavasya), Chaturmukha Bommarasa (Revanasiddhesvara Purana), Suranga Kavi (Trisashti Puratanara Charitre), and Nilakanthacharya (Aradhya Charitra), court poet of the Ummattur chieftain Virananjendra.[49]
In 1500, inspired by Palkuriki Somanatha (a bilingual poet in Kannada and Telugu), Singiraja synthesised an account on the life of Basavanna titled Maha Basavaraja Charitra (or Singiraja Purana), using the protagonist's vachana poems and giving details of his 88 famous deeds, as well as information about his opponents in the court of Southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II.[50] An eminent poet of this time was Guru Basava, known for his authorship of seven famous poems (Sapta Kavya), all but one being written in the shatpadi metre. He expounded on religious teachings in the form of formal discussions between the guru and disciple. His kavyas (classical epic poems) deal with spiritualism and extrasensory perception.[9][51]
Mallanarya of
In 1584, Virupaksha Pandita, the head priest at the Virupaksha Temple in Vijayanagara, wrote an account on the life and deeds of the 12th-century saint and vachana poet Chennabasava. The writing, titled Chenna Basava Purana, regards the protagonist as an incarnation of god Shiva and describes the glory of Shiva and his famous devotees. The book gives valuable information, including dates, about early Veerashaiva saints and vachanakaras (vachana poets).[54] In addition to religious content, the writing provides useful insights about the former capital Vijayanagara, its royal palace, its market places and merchants, its military encampments, specialisations and divisions and the guilds of workers who served the military in various capacities.[55] Other authors from the 16th century were Chermanka (Chermanka Kavya), Virabhadraraja (Virabhadra Vijaya), Chennabasavanka (Mahadevi Akkanna Purana), Nanjunda of Ikkeri (Bhairavaesvara Kavya) and Sadasiva Yogi (Ramanatha Vilasa).[49]
Jain writings
The cultural supremacy of the
Ratnakaravarni of
Bharatadesa Vaibhava is a version of the earlier Poorvapurana by
Salva (1550), who was the court poet of a Konkan prince named Salvamalla, wrote a propagandist work called the Salva Bharata.[33] This was a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata in sixteen parvas (divisions), intended to compete with the Vaishnava version of the epic written by Kumar Vyasa in the mid-15th century.[59][68] Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda of Gerosoppa (1553) wrote Kavya Sara, a 1,143 verse anthology of extracts of subjects written about by earlier poets between 900 and 1430. The text closely resembles an anthology written by Hoysala poet Mallikarjuna (1245), with some additions to account for writings in the post Mallikarjuna era.[69] A staunch Jain and a disputant, Vidyananda argued for the cause of his faith in the Vijayanagara court and other provincial courts. Nemanna (1559) wrote Jnana Bhaskara Charite on the importance of inner contemplation rather than rituals as the correct path towards emancipation.[66]
In Vijayanagara, Madhura was the court poet of
An important shatpadi writing from this period is the Jivandhara Charite (1424) by Bhaskara, a story of Prince Jivanadhara, who regained the throne usurped by his father.[21] Other well-known Jain writers were Kalyanakirti (Jnanachandrabhyudaya, 1439), Santikirtimuni (Santinathacharite, 1440), Vijayanna (Dvadasanuprekshe, 1448), Bommarasa of Terakanambi (Sanatkumara Charite, 1485), Kotesvara (1500),[70][73][74] Mangarasa III (Jayanripa Kavya), Santarasa (Yogaratnakara), Santikirti (Santinatha Purana, 1519), Doddayya (Chandraprabha Purana, 1550), Doddananka (Chandraprabha Purana, 1578) and Bahubali Pandita of Sringeri (Dharmanathapuranam, 1352).[70][74][75]
Secular writings
Although most of the writings that have survived from this period are religious in nature, there is sufficient literary evidence that secular writing was also popular in the imperial court. Some of these writings carry useful information on urban life, grandeur of the imperial and provincial courts, royal weddings and ceremonies. Other works refer the general town planning, fortifications and ordnance details at Vijayanagara and other important cities, irrigation reservoirs, merchants and shops dealing in a variety of commodities. On occasion, authors dwell on mythical cities that reflect their idealised views on contemporary life.[76] Commonly found in these works are description of artists and professionals and their relationship with the court. These included poets, bards, composers, painters, sculptors, dancers, theatrical performers and even wrestlers. Others who find mention are political leaders, ambassadors, concubines, accountants, goldsmiths, moneylenders and even servants and door keepers.[77]
Writings in various literary genres such as romance, fiction, erotica, folk songs and musical compositions were popular. A wealth of literature dealing in subjects such as astronomy, meteorology, veterinary science and medicine, astrology, grammar, philosophy, poetry, prosody, biography, history and lexicon, as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias, were written in this era.[78]
In 1360, Manjaraja I wrote a book on medicine called Khagendra Mani Darpana, basing it on the 5th century writings of
Deparaja, a member of the royal family, authored Amaruka and a collection of romantic stories called the Sobagina Sone (1410), written in the form of a narration by the author to his wife.
In 1567, Jain ascetic Srutakirti of Mysore translated from Sanskrit a biographic poem of a Hoysala lady Vijayakumari in Vijayakumari Charite.
Bhakti literature
Unlike the Veerashaiva movement which preached devotion to the god Shiva with an insistence on a
The Vaishnava
Compositions in the haridasa literature are sub-divided into four types: kirthane, suladi, ugabhoga and mundige. Kirthanes are devotional musical compositions with refrains based on raga and tala and celebrate the glory of god. The suladi are tala based, the ugabhoga are melody based while the mundige are in the form of riddles. Compositions were also modelled on jogula (lullaby songs) and sobane (marriage songs). A common feature of haridasa compositions are influences from the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Bhagavata.[87]
Haridasa poetry, which faded for a century after the death of Naraharitirtha, resurfaced with Sripadaraya, who was for some time the head of the Madhva matha (monastery of Madhvacharya) at Mulubagilu (in modern Kolar district). About a hundred of his kirthanes have survived, written under the pseudonym "Sriranga Vithala". Sripadaraya is considered a pioneer of this genre of devotional songs.[87] Sripadaraya's disciple, Vyasatirtha (or Vyasaraya), is most famous among the latter day Madhva saints. It was he who created the Vyasa kuta and Dasa kuta schools within the Madhva order. He commanded respect from King Krishnadeva Raya, who honoured him with the title kuladevata (family god). A poet of merit in Kannada and the author of seminal works in Sanskrit, Vyasatirtha was the guru responsible for shaping the careers of two of Kannada's greatest saint-poets, Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa.[90][91] Another prominent name in the age of Dasa (devotee) literature is Vadirajatirtha, a contemporary of Purandara Dasa and the author of many works in Kannada and Sanskrit.[92]
Purandara Dasa (1484–1564), a wandering bard who visited Vijayanagara during the reign of
Kanaka Dasa (whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka, 1509–1609) of Kaginele (in modern
For a brief period following the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the devotional movement seemed to lose momentum, only to become active again in the 17th century, producing an estimated 300 poets in this genre; famous among them are
Veerashaiva writings
Vachana poetry, developed in reaction to the rigid caste-based Hindu society, attained its peak in popularity among the under-privileged during the 12th century. The Veerashaivas, who wrote this poetry, had risen to influential positions by the Vijayanagara period.[100] Following the Muslim invasions in the early 14th century, Brahmin scholars methodically consolidated writings of Hindu lore. This inspired several Veerashaiva anthologists of the 15th and 16th centuries to collect Shaiva writings and vachana poems, originally written on palm leaf manuscripts.[100] Because of the cryptic nature of the poems, the anthologists added commentaries to them, thereby providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance.[101] An interesting aspect of this anthological work was the translation of the Shaiva canon into Sanskrit, bringing it into the sphere of the Sanskritic cultural order.[102]
Well known among these anthologies are Ganabhasita Ratnamale by Kallumathada Prabhudeva (1430), Visesanubhava Satsthala by Channaviracharya (16th century) and Bedagina Vachanagalu by Siddha Basavaraja (1600). The unique Shunyasampadane (the 'mystical zero') was compiled in four versions.[103] The first among them was anthologised by Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah (1400), who set the pattern for the other three to follow. The poems in this anthology are essentially in the form of dialogues between patron saint Allama Prabhu and famous Sharanas (devotees), and was meant to rekindle the revolutionary spirit of the 12th century. Halage Arya (1500–1530), Gummalapura Siddhalinga Yati (1560) and Gulur Siddaveeranodaya (1570) produced the later versions.[104]
Though the writing of vachana poems went into decline after the passing of the Basavanna era in the late 12th century, latter day vachanakaras such as Tontada Siddhesavara (or Siddhalinga Yati), a noted Shaiva saint and guru of King Virupaksha Raya II, started a revival. He wrote Shatsthala Jnanamrita (1540), a collection of 700 poems.[105] In 1560, Virakta Tontadarya made the life of Tontada Siddhesavara the central theme in his writing Siddhesvara Purana.[106] Virakta Tontadarya, Gummalapura Siddhalinga, Swatantra Siddhalingeshwara (1560) and Ghanalingideva (1560) are some well-known vachana poets who tried to recreate the glory days of the early poets, though the socio-political expediency did not exist.[104]
Mystic literature had a resurgence towards the beginning of the 15th century, in an attempt to synthesise the Veerashaiva and
Shivayogi's other writings include a scientific encyclopedia called Vivekachintamani, so well regarded that it was translated into Marathi language in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century. The writing categorises 1,500 topics based on subject and covers a wide array such as poetics, dance and drama, musicology and erotics.
In the post-Vijayanagara era, the Kaivalya tradition branched three ways. The first consisted of followers of the Nijaguna Shivayogi school, the second was more elitist and brahminical in nature and followed the writings of Mahalingaranga (1675), while the third was the branch that kept the vachana tradition alive.[108] Well-known poet-saints from this vachana tradition were Shivayogi's contemporary Muppina Sadakshari, whose collection of songs are called the Subodhasara; Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century; and Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.[88]
Notes
- ^ Sastri 1955, pp. 359–365
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 21–23
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 61–65
- ^ a b Kotraiah in Sinopoli (2003), pp. 130, 134
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Kotraiah in Sinopoli (2003), p. 131
- ^ a b c d e Sastri (1955), p. 363
- ^ Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp. 190–200
- ^ Sastri (1955), p244
- ^ a b c Rice E. P. (1921), p. 70
- ^ a b Rice E. P. (1921), pp. 45–46
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 27–28
- ^ a b Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 356
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 366
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997) p. 163
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 167, 202
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 157
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 164
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 164, 211
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 368
- ^ Sharma (1961), p. 514–555
- ^ a b c Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 212
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1181
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4002
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 27–28
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 377
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 378
- ^ a b Nagaraj (2003), pp. 378–379
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 61
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 208–209
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 31
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 37
- ^ a b Sastri (1955), p. 364
- ^ a b c d Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 69
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 182
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 357–358
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 38
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 39
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 36
- ^ a b c d Sastri (1955), p. 365
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 355
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 512
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 513
- ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 362–363
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), pp. 68, 70
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 617
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4003
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1996), p. 4003
- ^ Rice B. L. (1895), p. 501
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 22, 69
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 67
- ^ Sahitya akademi (1992), p. 4003
- ^ Bhava Chintaratna is said to be based on a work by Nanasambandar (Sastri 1955, p. 364)
- ^ a b Rice E. P. (1921), p. 71
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 68
- ^ Sinopoli (2003), p. 134
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 112
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 132
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 177
- ^ a b c d Sastri (1955), p. 360
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), pp. 374–375, 377
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 373
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 376
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 210
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 453–454
- ^ Mukherjee (1999), p. 328
- ^ a b Rice E. P. (1921), p. 47
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 211
- ^ a b Mukherjee (1999), p. 342
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 191
- ^ a b c d Rice E. P. (1921), p. 46
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 21
- ^ Narasimhacharya in Rice E. P. (1921), p. 47
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 22
- ^ a b Singh (2001), p. 982
- ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 23
- ^ Sinopoli (2003), p. 130
- ^ Sinopoli (2003), pp. 130–133
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 61–64
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 45
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 62–64
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1182
- ^ Kotraiah in Sinopoli (2003), pp. 133–134
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 62
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 476
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 193
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 192
- ^ a b c d Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 194
- ^ a b c d Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 200
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 192–200
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 195–196
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 324
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 200
- ^ a b Moorthy (2001), p. 67
- ^ Iyer (2006), p. 93
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 196–197
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 80
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 198–200
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 200–201
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1551
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 188
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 761
- ^ Nagraj (2003), p. 368
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 191, 199–200
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 189
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
- ^ Rice (1921), p. 71
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1165
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191
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External links
- "History of Kannada Literature-I". History of Kannada Literature. Retrieved 8 March 2008.
- Rice E. P (1982). History of Kannada Literature. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0063-8. Retrieved 8 March 2008.