Kaufering concentration camp complex

Coordinates: 48°07′23″N 10°50′28″E / 48.123°N 10.841°E / 48.123; 10.841
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Kaufering I–XI
Elkhanan Elkes
  • Viktor Frankl
    • Websitewww.landsberger-zeitgeschichte.de/English/Memorial.htm

    Kaufering was a system of eleven

    subcamps of the Dachau concentration camp which operated between 18 June 1944 and 27 April 1945 and which were located around the towns of Landsberg am Lech and Kaufering in Bavaria
    .

    Previously, Nazi Germany had deported all Jews from the Reich, but having exhausted other sources of labor, Jews were deported to Kaufering to create three massive underground bunkers,

    Allied bombing which had devastated German aircraft factories. The bunkers were intended for the production of Messerschmitt Me 262 aircraft, but none were produced at the camps before the United States Army
    captured the area.

    Kaufering was the largest of the Dachau subcamps and also the one with the worst conditions; about half of the 30,000 prisoners died from hunger, disease, executions, or during the

    death marches
    . Most of the sites were not preserved and have been repurposed for other uses.

    Establishment

    Internal view of Weingut I, the bunker at Mühldorf

    In early 1944,

    Mühldorf concentration camp.[1]

    Previously, Nazi Germany had attempted to make the Reich

    Prisoner functionaries were brought from Dachau to manage the new camp.[4]

    Forced labor

    The purpose of the camp was to produce Messerschmitt Me 262A aircraft.

    Unusually, the construction of the camps, as well as providing food and medical care, was the responsibility of the

    Organization Todt (OT), not the SS, which sought to extract the maximum labor for the minimum expense. The prisoners deported to each camp had to construct the accommodation themselves,[5] The resulting huts, partially buried for camouflage from aerial reconnaissance,[2] were completely inadequate for the weather conditions. Rain and snow leaked through the earthen roofs, and vermin infested the huts.[5] Prisoners had to sleep in straw spread on the floor.[6] Of Dachau's subcamps, Kaufering had the worst conditions.[7]

    Most prisoners were forced to work building railway embankments and hauling bags of cement for the bunker-building projects,[5] codenamed Weingut II, Diana II and Walnuss II.[8] Weingut II was 400 metres (1,300 ft) long and 28.4 metres (93 ft) high (more than five stories), with a concrete roof 3 metres (9.8 ft) thick. The roof had been planned to be 5 metres (16 ft) thick, but that was pared down due to lack of materials. The total floor area would be 95,000 square metres (1,020,000 sq ft); the Augsburg factory that it intended to replace had only 12,700 square metres (137,000 sq ft) of floor area in three dispersal locations. For protection from air raids, 40% of the bunker was underground and its roof was covered with dirt for camouflage. At least 10,000 Jewish prisoners worked on the bunker at some point.[9]

    External view of the Weingut II bunker

    The bunkers were to be used for producing different components of the

    Me 163B rocket-powered aircraft at Kaufering,[8][10] by employing 10,000 workers per shift in each bunker, 90,000 in all, of whom one-third were to be concentration camp prisoners. However, the construction of Diana II and Walnuss II was not finished due to the lack of concrete and steel.[8] When the United States liberated the area in April 1945, the excavation of Weingut II was not complete, but already production machines had been set up.[9] However, not a single aircraft was produced before liberation.[11]

    The murderous conditions meant that most prisoners were incapacitated in a short time, and OT and construction workers brutally beat victims in order to extract labor. Most prisoners were forced to work building railway embankments and hauling bags of cement for the bunker-building projects.[5] OT workers complained that, due to severe vermin infestation, prisoners spent time attempting to rid themselves of fleas when they were supposed to be working.[6] In December 1944, an OT staff member observed that of 17,600 prisoners, only 8,319 were capable of work, including those only capable of light work. Because the companies that hired the workers complained that they had to pay for the labor of prisoners unable to work, transports totaling 1,322[5] or 1,451 people were dispatched to Auschwitz in September and October 1944, where the victims were gassed.[12]

    Command and organization

    The SS hierarchy at Kaufering had mostly served at eastern death camps, such as

    Mittelbau-Dora, took over command of Kaufering. The camp doctor was Max Blancke [de; pl], who had worked at multiple concentration camps.[5] Architect Hermann Giesler, a close associate of Adolf Hitler, was in charge of the bunker construction.[1]

    Consisting of eleven subcamps, Kaufering was the largest of the Dachau subcamp systems,[1] and probably the largest Jewish subcamp system in the Reich.[13]

    List of Kaufering subcamps

    Map of all camps in the Kaufering subcamp system
    Map this section's coordinates using OpenStreetMap

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    Gate of Kaufering I with American soldier
    Kaufering IV on the day of liberation
    Inside an earth hut, where they had to sleep. This one at Kaufering IV – Hurlach
    Overview – Kaufering concentration camp complex[14]
    Eleven
    subcamps     		Period, scope, use, conditions, specials Place
    address
    Kaufering I – Landsberg

    SS headquarter

    camp complex Kaufering I–XI

    		(before late September, designated Kaufering III) was opened on 22 June 1944 and served as the headquarters of the Kaufering command from September. Located near Landsberg am Lech, the main purpose of this camp was the construction of bunker Weingut II. Between 2000 and 5000 men lived there; in February 1945, 200 women also arrived there. Because of overcrowding, Kaufering XI was established and some prisoners moved.[15] A group of seven Hungarian Jewish women, known as the "Schwangerenkommando" (pregnancy unit), who had conceived before their deportation to Auschwitz, was allowed to remain alive and bear their children.[5][16] Landsberg am Lech

    nahe Iglinger Straße
    48°03′37″N 10°51′08″E / 48.0602537°N 10.8521559°E / 48.0602537; 10.8521559 (subcamp Kaufering I – Landsberg mit SS-Kommandantur)

    Kaufering II – Igling Established on 24 August. Its prisoners, about 1200 men and women, mostly worked at the "Diana II" construction site. The camp existed at two locations, a summer camp built with plywood and a later camp, occupied during the winter months, which offered slightly better protection against the winter weather.[17] Igling
    48°03′00″N 10°49′23″E / 48.0499468°N 10.8229218°E / 48.0499468; 10.8229218 (subcamp Kaufering II – Igling)
    Kaufering III – Kaufering
    (first "I", later "III")    [18]

    (designated Kaufering I until September) was the original Kaufering camp, located near Kaufering and established by 1000 Hungarian Jewish men from Auschwitz on 18 June. These prisoners were forced to build their own accommodation. Later, prisoners were forced to work on the Weingut II bunker as well as the construction of Kaufering I and II. It served as the SS headquarters of the Kaufering complex until this was moved to Kaufering I in September 1944. The average population was 2000 men and 339 women. The senior prisoner was Victor Nečas, an Austrian political prisoner who communicated with the prisoners mostly in Hungarian.[19]

    Kaufering
    48°04′54″N 10°51′50″E / 48.0816065°N 10.8639754°E / 48.0816065; 10.8639754 (subcamp Kaufering III – Kaufering)
    Kaufering IV – Hurlach [de, he, pl], located between Kaufering and Hurlach, was established in September 1944 for 500 prisoners; the population later grew to 3000. Prisoners were forced to work at the Lagerlechfeld airfield, in road construction, and on the bunker Walnuss II until Kaufering IV was converted into a "sick camp", where prisoners were sent to die after they could no longer work.[20] A typhus epidemic broke out, and Dr. Blancke and the SS guards would not enter the barracks to avoid infection. Prisoner doctors could do little, as they had no medicine or equipment.[21] The Kaufering IV camp was liberated by the American Army in April 1945, when the SS began to prepare the surviving prisoners for the death march towards KL Dachau. A few days before the liberation, the SS crew killed hundreds of sick, wounded and incapacitated prisoners, which brought the number of soldiers who survived the camp to several hundred. It is estimated that there were 3,000 prisoners in the camp.[22] Kolonie Hurlach

    48°06′11″N 10°50′39″E / 48.1031890°N 10.8442252°E / 48.1031890; 10.8442252 (subcamp Kaufering IV – Hurlach)

    Kaufering V – Utting Near
    Utting, has an unclear history due to inconsistent testimony from survivors. It is possible that it was only a subarea of Kaufering X, such as the kitchen, rather than a separate subcamp. [23]
    		 Utting am Ammersee

    Gegend
    48°01′11″N 11°05′21″E / 48.019612°N 11.089130°E / 48.019612; 11.089130 (subcamp Kaufering V – Utting (eye witness David Ben Dor, 300 feet around))

    Kaufering VI – Türkheim [de] Was established in October 1944 at Türkheim, and housed between 1000 and 2500 prisoners, who were forced to work clearing nearby forests, in agriculture, and in construction. Many of the prisoners were later transported to other Kaufering subcamps to work on the bunkers.[23] Türkheim

    48°03′03″N 10°37′02″E / 48.050705°N 10.617181°E / 48.050705; 10.617181 (subcamp Kaufering VI – Türkheim)

    Kaufering VII – Erpfting Was established on 11 November 1944 near the offices of Held & Francke. Between 2000 and 3000 men and 118 to 272 women were forced to live in huts and clay bunkers and work on prefabricated parts for "Diana II". After a typhus epidemic, sick prisoners were taken to Kaufering IV.[24] Erpfting

    48°01′48″N 10°51′09″E / 48.0299958°N 10.8524659°E / 48.0299958; 10.8524659 (subcamp Kaufering VII – Erpfting)

    Kaufering VIII – Seestall At Seestall [de], was likely established as a mistake on the Germans' part, because the local soil was not suitable for the construction of bunkers. It was smaller than the other camps, and prisoners were forced to work on agriculture and gravel extraction.[25] Fuchstal/Seestall [de]

    47°57′49″N 10°51′19″E / 47.963659°N 10.855357°E / 47.963659; 10.855357 (subcamp Kaufering VIII – Seestall)

    Kaufering IX – Obermeitingen Was a men's camp that existed from 14 October 1944 in Obermeitingen. Its prisoners were forced to work on Walnuss II.[25] Obermeitingen

    48°08′14″N 10°49′48″E / 48.13727°N 10.82991°E / 48.13727; 10.82991 (subcamp Kaufering IX – Obermeitingen)[26]

    Kaufering X – Utting Established on Holzhauser Street in Utting on 26 September, housed 200 to 400 men forced to produce prefabricated components for the Dyckerhoff & Widmann firm. Because the prisoners worked indoors, their chances of survival were higher than at other subcamps.[25] Utting am Ammersee

    48°00′53″N 11°05′14″E / 48.01486°N 11.08730°E / 48.01486; 11.08730 (subcamp Kaufering X – Utting)

    Kaufering XI – Stadtwaldhof/Landsberg From late October, was established on Mühlweg Street in Landsberg to house surplus prisoners from Kaufering I. It consisted of barracks, clay bunkers, earthen huts, and a delousing center.[25] Landsberg am Lech

    48°02′33″N 10°50′14″E / 48.042590°N 10.837118°E / 48.042590; 10.837118 (subcamp Kaufering XI – Stadtwaldhof/Landsberg)

    Prisoners

    Barracks at Kaufering VII

    About 30,000 prisoners passed through the Kaufering camps,

    the areas annexed by Hungary.[5] Eight thousand Jews were forced to leave the Kovno Ghetto in July 1944, as the Red Army approached; male prisoners were separated from the women and sent to Kaufering.[28] Additional Jews arrived at Kaufering that summer during the liquidation of labor camps in the Baltics about to be overrun by the Red Army.[29] These Jews had already survived countless "Aktions" in which victims were taken away to be murdered, and three years of forced labor, as well as long transports in cattle cars. Other Kaufering prisoners had survived four years in the Łódź Ghetto and a selection at Auschwitz.[30] On 10 October 1944, a transport of Jewish men who had been imprisoned at the Theresienstadt Ghetto in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia arrived via Auschwitz.[31] Other Jewish prisoners were from the Netherlands, France, Italy, or Rhodes.[5]

    Interview William Lowenberg 1993, Kaufering subcamp system of Dachau concentration camp, about earth huts, bunkers, mass graves, suicides, hunger, cold, mistreatment, forced prostitution, death march.

    Some of the food allotted to prisoners was diverted by SS guards, further reducing the nutrient intake of prisoners. Those who were sick, with diseases such as typhus, spotted fever, and tuberculosis that were widespread in the camp, were fed even less,

    Elkhanan Elkes, head of the Judenrat at Kovno, was the camp elder of Kaufering I, where he died.[33][34]

    And – the attrition was very very high. And – but there the bodies weren't burned. They were taken to a site in mass graves, huge mass graves. I don't think they have ever been found. I wouldn't be able to find outside Kaufering. And huge mass graves. It's not very far from the Landberg prison [...] And – it was so bad – that – we had a lot of suicides there. People were going into the electric wires. And I remember, that's the only time I ever saw cannibalism. There was so little food in '45 there out – in January, February, in March...

    — William J. Lowenberg, Interview, January 28th, 1993[35] (see video below)

    A commission established after the war estimated that 14,500 Kaufering prisoners had died. German historian Edith Raim wrote that about half of the 30,000 prisoners died before liberation. The main causes of death were hunger, disease, execution, deportation to Auschwitz, and the death marches.[33][36] According to American historian Daniel Blatman, about 4,300 of those victims died at Kaufering itself; additional victims were sent to Dachau after becoming unable to work, or were killed during the death marches.[37]

    Death marches

    Survivors liberated at Kaufering I

    As Allied troops approached, rumors circulated among the prisoners that the Germans were going to massacre them before liberation. In mid-April, SS general Ernst Kaltenbrunner relayed orders from Adolf Hitler for the Luftwaffe to bomb Dachau, Landsberg, and Mühldorf, which all had high Jewish populations. The Gauleiter of Munich, Paul Giesler, ordered Bertus Gerdes, administrator of Upper Bavaria, to prepare plans for the extermination of the surviving prisoners. Gerdes prevaricated, citing the lack of airplane fuel and ammunition as well as poor weather. In response, Kaltenbrunner ordered that the Kaufering prisoners be taken to Dachau main camp, where they were to be poisoned. Gerdes ordered a local doctor to prepare poison, but this plan could not be implemented either. The third plan was to take the prisoners to Ötz Valley in the Alps, where they were to be murdered "in one way or another".[38]

    According to German records, 10,114 prisoners, including 1,093 women, were at Kaufering camps during the last week of April. Most of them were evacuated to Dachau or locations further south, either on foot or by train.

    Allach concentration camp.[10]

    Hundreds of the evacuees from Kaufering arrived at Buchberg labor camp (south of Wolfratshausen) on 29 April. Otto Moll, a functionary of Kaufering, attempted to massacre these prisoners but was foiled by the camp commander. Instead Moll killed 120 or 150 Russian prisoners from Buchberg.[41] Many of those who left Kaufering were liberated at Dachau on 28 April, but others were forced to march southwards into Upper Bavaria and were not freed until May. Kaufering IV, where those incapable of walking were held, was set on fire on the orders of the SS doctor, Max Blancke.[33] Hundreds of sick and emaciated prisoners were trapped inside and killed. Shortly afterwards, Blancke committed suicide.[21]

    • Kaufering after liberation
    • Charred corpses at Kaufering IV
      Charred corpses at Kaufering IV
    • German civilians forced to bury victims
      German civilians forced to bury victims
    • Five of the seven "Schwangerenkommando" women, and their infants, after liberation
      Five of the seven "Schwangerenkommando" women, and their infants, after liberation

    Liberation and aftermath

    Kaufering IV (Hurlach) liberation and burials

    The subcamps of Kaufering were liberated between 24 and 27 April 1945 by the Seventh United States Army.[39]

    The

    12th Armored Division reached Kaufering IV on 27 April, with the 101st Airborne Division arriving the next day.[2] The 522nd Field Artillery Battalion, which consisted entirely of Japanese Americans, also participated in the liberation,[42] as did the 36th Infantry Division from 30 April.[43] The liberators found 500 charred corpses, many of them naked, which they forced local German residents to bury.[2][21] The remaining structures were "indescribably filthy" because dying prisoners had been left there. American soldiers documented the camps in photographs and newsreels.[21]
    One of the liberators reported:

    Our first sight of the camp was appalling. Inside the enclosure we could see three rows of bodies, approximately 200, mostly nude. We entered the camp to look it over. The bodies were in all shapes and conditions. Some were half burned, others badly scorched. Their fists were clenched in the agonies of their death. Their eyes were bulging and dilated as though even in death they were seeing and enduring the horrors of their lives in prison. None were more than skin and bones. The camp had been partially destroyed by fire, these were the victims.[44]

    Nine of the forty defendants of the

    displaced persons camp was located in Landsberg in the postwar era, led by Lithuanian Jews who had survived Kaufering.[33]

    Commemoration

    Entrance of the Welfenkaserne [de], German Air Force repair depot located at the former Weingut II bunker

    There are dozens of "

    Sankt Ottilien there is a small cemetery with the remains of about 40 prisoners who died shortly after liberation.[48]

    At the beginning of the 1980s, a private association called Landsberg im 20. Jahrhundert [de] (Landsberg in the 20th Century) was formed to commemorate Kaufering. The site of Kaufering VII was purchased after a Jewish survivor donated the money on the condition that a memorial be erected, which has not been accomplished.[49] In 2014, the federal government gave 700,000 euros to the European Holocaust Memorial in Landsberg (Landsberg Holocaust Memorial Association) and the city of Landsberg donated land with architectural remains.[49] Restoration work was done between 2009 and 2016 on three intact and three ruined earthen huts and the housing of the SS guards, by the Europäische Holocaustgedenkstätte, winning the Bavarian Historic Conservation Prize in Gold.[50] The site is fenced off and not accessible to visitors, but there are informational and commemorative plaques nearby.[51] According to historian Edith Raim, the Landsberg im 20. Jahrhundert association and its director, Anton Posset, have refused access to the site to survivors and their families, the Israeli ambassador Shimon Stein, and inspectors of the Bavarian List of Monuments.[49]

    Besides Kaufering VII, there are hardly any remnants of the Kaufering subcamps, whose locations were only definitively established due to Raim's work.[52] Most of the sites are now used for gardens, forests, agriculture, or housing. Landsberg am Lech has a prominent plaque in the center of town commemorating the German soldiers who died in both World Wars, but no memorial to the Holocaust victims.[47] There is a modest memorial at Kaufering III,[53] while a student project to establish an information board was not maintained and fell into disrepair.[54] Only grave markers remain at Kaufering II and VI.[51] A tennis court operates on the former site of Kaufering I,[34] while Kaufering VI has been built over and there is a McDonald's nearby.[47] Traces of the fire set by the SS at Kaufering IV were destroyed by gravel-mining in the 1980s;[55] a hunting tower resembling the guard towers at concentration camps was erected by a local resident, which one visitor found "rather disturbing".[47]

    Only one of the bunkers built by slave laborers, Weingut II, survives. During the 1960s, it was repurposed for use by the Bundeswehr, as part of the Welfenkaserne [de] facility,[52] and is still in use as a repair facility by the German Air Force, as of 2018.[47][56]

    • Kaufering memorials
    • Memorial at the train station in Kaufering
      Memorial at the train station in Kaufering
    • Kaufering III memorials
      Kaufering III memorials
    • Memorial at Landsberg am Lech mass grave
      Memorial at Landsberg am Lech mass grave
    • Entrance to the cemetery at Türkheim (Kaufering VI)
      Entrance to the cemetery at Türkheim (Kaufering VI)

    List of cemeteries of Kaufering subcamps

    Map this section's coordinates using OpenStreetMap

    Download coordinates as:

    see German article with pictures

    In popular culture

    The liberation of Kaufering IV was depicted in the second half

    Catcher in the Rye, was one of the liberators of Kaufering IV.[60]

    Austrian psychiatrist Viktor Frankl was deported from Theresienstadt to Kaufering via Auschwitz in October 1944; he spent five months in Kaufering III and was transferred to Kaufering VI in March 1945.[61][62] His 1946 memoir, Man's Search for Meaning, has sold more than ten million copies and been translated into 24 languages.[63] Large parts of the book are purportedly set in Auschwitz, where Frankl spent only three days, but actually depict his experience at Kaufering.[64] In the book, Frankl develops his theory of logotherapy and argues that prisoners who maintained a positive attitude were more likely to survive. His work has however not been positively received by Holocaust historians, who maintain that Frankl's theories do not explain why some prisoners survived and others did not.[65]

    References

    Citations
    1. ^ a b c d e f Raim 2009, p. 488.
    2. ^ a b c d e f g "Kaufering". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
    3. ^ Fenner 2012, p. 133.
    4. ^ Raim 2009, pp. 488–489.
    5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Raim 2009, p. 489.
    6. ^ a b Fenner 2012, p. 145.
    7. ^ Bazyler & Tuerkheimer 2015, p. 83.
    8. ^ a b c d e Uziel 2011, p. 136.
    9. ^ a b Uziel 2011, p. 137.
    10. ^ a b c d Schwartz 2011, p. 138.
    11. ^ Morgan 1994, p. 48.
    12. ^ Fenner 2012, p. 135.
    13. ^ a b Wachsmann 2015, p. 845.
    14. ^ Manfred Deiler: Die Lager des KZ-Lagerkomplexes Kaufering (aerial views Luftbilder and some coordinates, not all up to date and exact), landsberger-zeitgeschichte.de. Retrieved 14 September 2021.
    15. ^ Fenner 2012, p. 136.
    16. ^ "Group portrait of five Hungarian Jewish mothers and their infants in a Dachau sub-camp in Germany". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
    17. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 136–137.
    18. ISBN 3-406-52962-3
    19. ^ Fenner 2012, p. 137.
    20. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 137–138.
    21. ^ a b c d Fenner 2012, p. 153.
    22. ISBN 3920216563
      .
    23. ^ a b Fenner 2012, p. 138.
    24. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 138–139.
    25. ^ a b c d Fenner 2012, p. 139.
    26. ^ "BayernAtlas". Bayerisches Staatsministerium der Finanzen und für Heimat.
    27. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 135, 142.
    28. ^ Blatman 2011, pp. 60–61.
    29. ^ Blatman 2011, p. 201.
    30. ^ Blatman 2011, p. 203.
    31. ^ Kárný 1995, pp. 15, 28, 34.
    32. ^ Fenner 2012, p. 148.
    33. ^ a b c d e f Raim 2009, p. 490.
    34. ^ a b Fenner 2012, p. 157.
    35. ^ Lowenberg, William (28 January 1993). "Oral history interview with William J. Lowenberg". Retrieved 18 September 2021. Quotation RG Number: RG-50.030.0139, Part 3/5, min 01:45:55–01:46:59.
    36. ^ Wachsmann 2015, p. 846.
    37. ^ Blatman 2011, p. 202.
    38. ^ Schwartz 2011, p. 133.
    39. ^ a b Fenner 2012, p. 152.
    40. ^ Blatman 2011, p. 204.
    41. ^ Schwartz 2011, p. 146.
    42. ^ Medoff, Rafael (14 February 2014). "FDR's Views on Japanese Offer a Window Into Why He Wouldn't Save Jews". Tablet Magazine. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
    43. ^ "The 36th Infantry Division". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
    44. ^ Blatman 2011, pp. 202–203.
    45. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 157–160.
    46. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 155, 160.
    47. ^
      Algemeiner
      . Retrieved 11 January 2019.
    48. ^ Fenner 2012, p. 155.
    49. ^ a b c Lauff, Werner (9 January 2019). "Wissenschaftlerin Edith Raim kritisiert Gedenkarbeit" [Scholar Edith Raim criticizes the commemoration of Landsberg / Kaufering]. Kreisbote [de] (in German). Retrieved 11 January 2019.
    50. ^ Rehm, Maus & Jagfeld 2017, abstract.
    51. ^ a b Fenner 2012, p. 159.
    52. ^ a b Fenner 2012, p. 156.
    53. ^ Fenner 2012, p. 158.
    54. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 159–160.
    55. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 157–158.
    56. ^ Whitehouse, Rosie (12 August 2018). "German town where 'nothing happened' confronts Nazi past". The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
    57. ^ a b Sepinwall, Alan (29 June 2009). "Band of Brothers: Revisiting "Why We Fight"". NJ.com. The Star-Ledger. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
    58. ^ a b Greig, Finlay (24 October 2017). "Band of Brothers: how its best episode was also its most devastating". i. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
    59. ^ Ricks, Thomas E. "The beginning of 'Band of Brothers' as a primer on good military leadership". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
    60. ^ Churchwell, Sarah (13 September 2013). "'Salinger', by David Shields and Shane Salerno". Financial Times. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
    61. ^ Fenner 2012, pp. 154–155.
    62. ^ Pytell 2015, pp. 104–106.
    63. ^ Noble, Holcomb B. (4 September 1997). "Dr. Viktor E. Frankl of Vienna, Psychiatrist of the Search for Meaning, Dies at 92". The New York Times. p. B-7. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
    64. ^ Pytell 2015, pp. 104–106, 115.
    65. ^ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, pp. 9–10.
    Bibliography

    Further reading

    External links

    48°07′23″N 10°50′28″E / 48.123°N 10.841°E / 48.123; 10.841

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