Khat
Khat | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Celastrales |
Family: | Celastraceae |
Genus: | Catha |
Species: | C. edulis
|
Binomial name | |
Catha edulis |
Khat or qat, Catha edulis (
Khat contains the
Since 1980, the
The legality of khat varies by region and country; in many territories, khat might pass “under-the-radar” as a
Nomenclature
The genus name Catha is a Latinization of the Arabic name قات, which is regularly romanized as qāt. Other romanizations include kat, quatt, qaad, qhat, ghat, and chat.[9][10]
The khat plant is known by a variety of names, such as qat and gat in
It also goes by various descriptive names, such as Abyssinian tea, Arabian tea, kafta, jimaa, and Somalian tea in its endemic regions of the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula.[10][14]: 4–5 [15] In South Africa, the plant is known as bushman's tea.[16] The plant is also known as chat tree and flower of paradise.[13]
Description
Khat is a slow-growing shrub or tree that typically attains a height of 1–5 meters (3 feet 3 inches – 16 feet 5 inches). However, it can reach heights of up to 10 m (33 ft) in equatorial areas. The plant usually grows in arid environments, at a temperature range of 5–35 degrees Celsius (41–95 degrees Fahrenheit).[17] It has evergreen leaves, which are 5–10 centimeters (2–4 inches) long and 1–4 cm (0.39–1.6 in) broad.
It takes seven to eight years for the khat plant to reach its full height. Other than access to sun and water, khat requires little maintenance. Ground water is often pumped from deep wells by diesel engines to irrigate the crops, or brought in by water trucks. The plants are watered heavily starting around a month before they are harvested to make the leaves and stems soft and moist. A good khat plant can be harvested four times a year, providing a year-long source of income for the farmer.
The shrub's flowers are produced on short axillary
The samara fruit is an oblong, three-valved capsule, which contains one to three seeds.
Cultivation and uses
Khat has been grown for use as a stimulant for centuries in the
In
Although the practice of khat-chewing is still primarily restricted to its original area of cultivation in the
Traditionally, khat is used as a socialising drug as in Yemen, where khat-chewing is predominantly a male habit combined with conversation, hookah smoking, and tea drinking.
One reason for the widespread cultivation of khat in Yemen is the high income that it provides for farmers. Some studies done in 2001 estimated that the income from cultivating khat was about 2.5 million Yemeni rials per hectare, while fruits brought only 0.57 million rials per hectare. Between 1970 and 2000, the area on which khat was cultivated was estimated to have grown from 8,000 to 103,000 hectares.[24] In 2000, according to a World Bank estimate, khat accounted for 30% of Yemen's economy.[25]
In countries outside the core area of growth and consumption, khat is sometimes chewed at parties or social functions. It may also be used by farmers and labourers for reducing physical fatigue or hunger, and by drivers and students for improving attention.
More recently, in 2019, reports indicate that
Effects
This section needs more primary sources. (May 2018) |
Khat consumption induces mild
The use of khat results in
It is unclear if the consumption of khat directly affects the mental health of the user or not.
Khat is mainly chewed by men, but there are cases of its use by women, and in particular it has been associated with increased likelihood of adverse outcomes during pregnancy.[34]
Effects by timeframe
Immediate
- alertness[14]: 6
- arousal[14]: 5
- concentration[14]: 7 [31]
- confidence[14]: 6
- constipation[14]: 9
- dilated pupils
- euphoria[4]
- friendliness[14]: 7
- increased blood pressure[4][14]: 6
- increased heart rate[4][14]: 5
- insomnia[14]: 7
- mania
- psychosis[14]: 8
- suppressed appetite[14]: 8
- talkativeness[14]: 8
- thought disorder[14]: 9
- verbosity[14]: 8
Long-term
- depression[14]: 10
- infrequent hallucinations[4][14]: 10
- impaired inhibition (similar to alcohol)[14]: 10 [35]
- increased risk of myocardial infarction (heart attack)[14]: 10 [36]
- oral cancer[37][38]
- psychosis in extreme cases in the genetically predisposed[4][14]: 11
- weight loss
Indeterminate
- death[14]: 12 [39]
- stroke following acute coronary syndrome (clogging of the artery)[note 1][14]: 12 [39]
Chemistry and pharmacology
The stimulant effect of the plant was originally attributed to "katin",
When khat leaves dry, the more potent chemical, cathinone, decomposes within 48 hours, leaving behind the milder chemical, cathine. Thus, harvesters transport khat by packaging the fresh leaves and stems in plastic bags or wrapping them in banana leaves to preserve their moisture and keep the cathinone potent. It is also common for them to sprinkle the plant with water frequently or use refrigeration during transportation.
When the khat leaves are chewed, cathine and cathinone are released and absorbed through the mucous membranes of the mouth as well as the lining of the stomach. The action of cathine and cathinone on the
Receptors for serotonin show a high affinity for cathinone, suggesting this chemical is responsible for feelings of euphoria associated with chewing khat. In mice, cathinone produces the same types of nervous pacing or repetitive scratching behaviours associated with amphetamines.[44] The effects of cathinone peak after 15 to 30 minutes, with nearly 98% of the substance metabolised into norephedrine by the liver.[41]
Cathine is somewhat less understood, being believed to act upon the
Demographics
An estimated 5 to 10 million people globally use khat on a daily basis.[47] It is grown principally by communities in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula, where khat-chewing has a long history as a social custom dating back thousands of years.[4]
The traditional form of khat chewing in Yemen involves only male users; khat chewing by females is less formal and less frequent. Researchers estimate about 70–80% of Yemenis between 16 and 50 years old chew khat, at least on occasion. Approximately 60–90% of male and 35% of female Yemenis chew khat daily.[47][25] Before Yemeni unification in 1990, khat chewing was largely confined to the north-west mountains of the country, where khat grows.[25] Yemenis spend an estimated 14.6 million man-hours per day chewing khat. Researchers have also estimated that families spend about 17% of their income on khat.[24]
History
The inhabitants of
Muslim Sufis in the surrounding areas also used it to intensify their mystical experience and to facilitate a sense of union with God.[51]
The earliest known documented description of khat is found in the Kitab al-Saidala fi al-Tibb كتاب الصيدلة في الطب, an 11th-century work on
[A] commodity from Turkestan. It is sour to taste and slenderly made in the manner of batan-alu. But khat is reddish with a slight blackish tinge. It is believed that batan-alu is red, coolant, relieves biliousness, and is a refrigerant for the stomach and the liver.
It is mentioned again in a 13th-century publication by the physician Naguib Ad-Din.[53]
In 1854,
You observed a new peculiarity in this city – everyone chewed leaves as goats chew the cud. There is a type of leaf, rather wide and about two fingers in length, which is widely sold, as people would consume these leaves just as they are; unlike betel leaves, which need certain condiments to go with them, these leaves were just stuffed fully into the mouth and munched. Thus when people gathered around, the remnants from these leaves would pile up in front of them. When they spat, their saliva was green. I then queried them on this matter: ‘What benefits are there to be gained from eating these leaves?’ To which they replied, ‘None whatsoever, it’s just another expense for us as we’ve grown accustomed to it’. Those who consume these leaves have to eat lots of ghee and honey, for they would fall ill otherwise. The leaves are known as Kad."
In 1856, English writer Charles Dickens also described the custom of khat chewing in the Horn region and the adjacent Gulf territories, likening it to drinking strong green tea:[10]
And one may sleep well if, during the day, too much kat has not been chewed. The leaves of the drug called kat are the chief source of pleasurable excitement in these districts of East Africa. Botanists, taking the native name for the plant, turn it into Catha edulis, eatable kat. It is much used by the Arabs, to whom it is sent in camel loads, consisting of a number of small parcels, each containing about forty slender twigs, with the leaves attached, carefully, wrapped so as to avoid exposure to the air. These leaves are chewed, and act upon the spirits of those using them, much as a strong dose of green tea acts upon us in Europe, when it acts agreeably. Europeans used to stronger stimulants, are little affected by the use of kat, but among the more temperate Arabs it is so welcome a provocative to good humour, that about two hundred and eighty camel-loads of it are used every year in Aden only.
Nowadays khat consumption is limited to
The plant is native to the
protected species. The plant is mostly used by East Africans and South West Arabians, rarely by people from other places.
Following a ban on khat in the British-governed Aden Protectorate, the Qāt Commission of Inquiry in Aden concluded: "Qāt does not create an addiction, like opium or hashish, in that those who are suddenly deprived of it, do not suffer physical consequences."[55]
Regulation
In 1965, the
Africa
Morocco
Khat is illegal in Morocco.[58]
Ethiopia
Khat is legal in Ethiopia.[7]
Somalia
Khat is legal in Somalia.[7]
Djibouti
Khat is legal in Djibouti.[59]
Kenya
Khat is legal in Kenya. However, two of its active components, cathinone and cathine, are classed as Class C substances.[60]
South Africa
In South Africa, Catha edulis is a protected tree.[16]
The use of khat is illegal.[61]
Uganda
Miraa is legal in Uganda but efforts are underway (as of October 2015) to ban it.[62]khat has now been banned in Uganda.
Asia
Bangladesh
Khat is illegal in Bangladesh.[63]
China
Hong Kong
Khat is regarded as a dangerous drug in Hong Kong. Traffickers can face a penalty up to HK$5 million as well as life imprisonment.[65]
Taiwan
In Taiwan, khat is illegal. It is classified as a narcotic drug.[66]
Israel
Khat, called "Gat" in Israel, is consumed mainly by Yemenite Jews and Beta Israel. The activity of chewing its leaves is called "lekhazen" (Hebrew: לכזן). The process of chewing the Gat can take up to several hours. Some chew the Gat in a gathering which is called "takhazina" (Hebrew: תכזינה). The Gat is grown traditionally in private gardens, but it may be found in some markets.
Gat is legal in Israel as long as it is consumed in its natural form, but the distillation of its components is illegal. Some use the plant as a hedge since it is an evergreen.
In 2003, Hagigat, a pill based on extracted
As of June 2012, the Israeli anti-drug authority announced that beverages containing Khat are considered illegal as per the dangerous drug ordinance of the state of Israel.[70]
Indonesia
Khat is illegal in Indonesia.[71]
Saudi Arabia
Khat is illegal in Saudi Arabia.[72]
United Arab Emirates
Khat is illegal in the United Arab Emirates under federal law number 14 of 1995 on the Countermeasures against Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. Schedule No. 4, Part 2(5), provides for the prohibition of the cultivation and possession of khat.[73] The possession and selling of khat may lead to life imprisonment.[74]
Yemen
Khat is legal in Yemen.
The widespread cultivation of khat in Yemen has exacerbated a
Europe
Belgium
Khat has been illegal in Belgium since 2006.[77]
Denmark
Khat has been illegal in Denmark since 1993.[78] In 2009, the Danish Health Authority investigated khat use among Somalis in Denmark. A questionnaire with 848 respondents was used. The responses indicated that 48% of Somali males and 16% of females used the narcotic on a monthly basis and that 29% of males and 6% of females used it two times or more a week.[79] Half the respondents had never used khat.[79] The responses indicated that Somalis constituted the great majority of users in Denmark.[79]
The report also investigated attitudes towards khat use among Somalis in Denmark. In total, two out of three respondents stated that khat is a problem for social integration into Danish society, while one in three users stated the same.[79] Responses indicated that two out of three considered khat to be part of Somali culture, although two in three also stated that they agree that khat should be banned in Denmark.[79]
Finland
Khat is classified as an illegal drug in Finland,[80] and possession, use and sale of the substance is prohibited and punishable. As with all illegal drugs, operating a motor vehicle with detectable levels of Khat or its metabolites in one's system can also lead to a conviction for driving under the influence, even if the driver does not appear intoxicated.
France
Khat is prohibited in France as a stimulant since 1957.[32]
Germany
In Germany, cathinone is listed as a "non-trafficable substance", which makes the possession, sale and purchase of fresh khat illegal. The derivative cathine, with "norpseudoephedrine" listed as an alternate name, is only available on prescription.[81]
In 2017, 5815 kg of khat was discovered by customs officials in Frankfurt. In June 2018, 324 kg of khat was discovered in packages from East Africa.[82]
Iceland
In August 2010 the Icelandic police intercepted khat smuggling for the first time. 37 kg were confiscated. The drugs were most likely intended for sale in Canada.[83] Again in May 2011 the police intercepted around 60 kg.[84]
Ireland
Khat is a controlled drug for the purpose of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1977 and Schedule 1 of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 1988. As such its possession and supply is prohibited.
Italy
Khat is inserted in the Table I of the Italian official list of psychoactive drugs under the name "Catha edulis pianta" (English: "Catha edulis plant") and thus possession is forbidden.[85]
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the active ingredients of khat,
Norway
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
In Norway, khat is classified as a narcotic drug and is illegal to use, sell and possess. Most users are Somali immigrants and khat is smuggled from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.[92]
Norwegian Customs seized 10 metric tons of khat in 2010, an increase from less than 4 in 2006.[93]
In 2016, Oslo municipality estimated 50–70% of Somali immigrant males to be habitual users.[94]
Poland
In Poland, khat is a classified narcotic drug, and is illegal to use, sell and possess.[95]
Slovenia
Khat is classified as an illegal drug in Slovenia.[96]
Sweden
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
The drug was prohibited in Sweden in 1989, without research.[78] In 2007, it was estimated that 30% of Somali males in Sweden were using khat.[98] Smuggling seizures by police amounted to about 9 tonnes annually.[98]
Switzerland
In Switzerland, khat is illegal. It is classified as a narcotic drug.[99]
United Kingdom
Khat was made illegal in the UK on 24 June 2014.[100] Concerns had been expressed by commentators, health professionals and community members about the use of khat in the UK, particularly by immigrants from Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia.[101][102] Studies of the effects of khat use by immigrants on their mental health suggested that there was a need for better research on khat-chewing and its possible link with psychiatric disorders; it also suggested that public discourse on the issue displayed elements of a moral panic.[102] Some Somali community organisations also campaigned for khat to be banned.[103] As a result of these concerns, the Home Office commissioned successive research studies to look into the matter, and in 2005, presented the question of khat's legal status before the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. The study concluded that most of the participants who were using khat were using it moderately in terms of both the quantity used and the frequency and duration of chewing sessions, and that khat use was typically a social activity. Only a small minority of the study participants' khat use was judged to be excessive.[104] After a careful review of the evidence, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs recommended in January 2006 that the status of khat as a legal substance should remain for the time being.[101]
In 2008,
During a parliamentary debate on the legality issue on 11 January 2012, Mark Lancaster, the Conservative Member of Parliament for Milton Keynes, stated that the importation of Khat into the UK stands at 10 tonnes every week.[108]
On 23 January 2013, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) said there was "insufficient evidence" that khat caused health problems. The ACMD said there was "no evidence" khat was directly linked with serious or organised crime, and was chewed to obtain a "mild stimulant effect much less potent than stimulant drugs, such as amphetamine".[109]
On 3 July 2013, the
Alex Miller, a journalist from the Montreal, Canada-based magazine and television channel Vice, looked into the use of the substance and the potential impact of the ban for BBC nightly current affairs programme Newsnight[112] and for a Vice documentary.[113]
Kenyan MPs appealed to the UK not to "condemn people" by banning the herbal stimulant khat[114]
In March 2014, the United Kingdom House of Commons' Home Affairs Select Committee announced that it would continue to lobby for the UK government not to go through with its intended ban on khat. The committee had shortly before also completed an inquiry and a report recommending that the British authorities refrain from banning the plant.[115]
On 12 May 2014, the House of Lords passed a Motion to Approve the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (Designation)(Amendment) (No. 2)(England, Wales and Scotland) Order 2014,[116] in order to control Catha edulis as a Class C drug. An amendment was proposed stating that, "this House regrets that Her Majesty’s Government’s plans for the introduction of the Order do not include provisions for a 12-month review of the impact of the reclassification of khat in view of the highly unusual community focus of its use, for putting a detailed policing strategy in place before a ban takes effect, or for a health strategy to prevent a transfer of addiction to other substances; and do not commit the Department for International Development to do more work with the government of Kenya to alleviate the effect of the reclassification on the Kenyan economy." However, the amendment was defeated by vote.[117] The prohibition came into effect on 24 June 2014.[118]
In January 2015, the Bristol Post reported that most khat houses in the city had closed down, "forcing users to take the drug in their homes instead". The local police had initially not sought to enforce the ban, giving users a grace period, but according to the Bristol Post had recently started to take action against khat use and had issued three warnings and a caution. Additionally, in September 2014 the police had seized 24 bags of dried khat from a property in Easton, but no arrests were made. Additionally, the Somali Resource Centre indicated that the ban seemed to have been effective, and that the prohibition had all but destroyed the import market since the plant has to be fresh in order to be consumed.[119] A consultation with Somalis in Glasgow undertaken by the national voluntary organisation Fast Forward at the request of the Somali Association in Glasgow in October 2014 suggested that khat continues to be used in both fresh and dried forms by some Somalis in the city, and that the ban has also led some users to seek out other substances.[120] The ban has reportedly served to increase the price of khat in the UK. Channel 4 News reported in September 2014 that before the ban, 20 tonnes of khat arrived at Heathrow Airport daily, and it would sell for £3 per bundle. After the ban, it was reportedly selling at £30 per bundle.[121]
North America
Canada
In Canada, khat is a controlled substance under Schedule IV of the
In 2008, Canadian authorities reported that khat is the most common illegal drug being smuggled at airports.[123]
However, in 2012 the
United States
In the United States, cathinone is a Schedule I drug, according to the US
"Cathinone is the major psychoactive component of the plant Catha edulis (khat). The young leaves of khat are chewed for a stimulant effect. Enactment of this rule results in the placement of any material that contains cathinone into Schedule I."[127]
Catha edulis (khat) is a stimulant similar to that of amphetamine and its congeners, not a drug as categorised by US FDA (United States Food & Drug Administration) and FDA import Alert #66-23 (published date 03/18/2011) states that "Districts may detain, without physical examination, all entries of khat",[128] based on section 801(a) (3) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act on the grounds that "its labeling fails to bear adequate directions for use."
As federal and local khat raids have often targeted immigrants from countries where khat is legal, issues of cultural misunderstanding have sometimes been raised.[129]
The plant itself is specifically banned in Missouri:
"Khat, to include all parts of the plant presently classified botanically as catha edulis, whether growing or not; the seeds thereof; any extract from any part of such plant; and every compound, manufacture, salt, derivative, mixture, or preparation of the plant, its seed or extracts."[130]
In California, both the plant itself as well as cathinone, its active component, are illegal.[131]
Oceania
Australia
In Australia, the importation of khat is controlled under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956. It is illegal to import khat into Australia for personal use. Khat can be imported only for medical or scientific use.[132]
Importing khat without a permit is subject to fines or prosecution.[133] In 2003, the total number of khat annual permits was 294 and the total number of individual khat permits was 202 however as of 1 December 2013, permits for the use of khat by individuals for recreational/cultural purposes are no longer issued. There are currently no plans by the Australian Government to amend the regulations to allow the importation of khat for personal use.[134]
Khat is listed as a Schedule 2 dangerous drug in Queensland, in the same category as cannabis.[135] Legality in New South Wales is not clear.[136]
The importation of Khat (Catha edulis) material (includes material that is fresh, dried, powdered, capsules or tablets) is prohibited under the Customs (Prohibited Import) Regulations 1956 unless the person importing the material is the holder of both a license to import and a permit to import granted by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). Biosecurity Act 2015 [permanent dead link]
New Zealand
In New Zealand, khat is listed as a Class C drug, in the same category as cannabis and codeine.[137]
South America
In South America, there is no legislation regarding khat; the active ingredients in the plant can be found in several weight control compounds sold in the continent.[138]
Research programs
In 2009, the
See also
- Betel leaves, a herb in Southeast Asia
- Coca, a herb used for elaboration of cocaine and traditional chewing
- List of Southern African indigenous trees
- Phenylpropanolamine
- Use of drugs in warfare
Notes
- pathophysiologicalmechanisms
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Bibliography
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External links
- Khat drug profile The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction(EMCDDA)
- Dressler, S.; Schmidt, M. & Zizka, G. (2014). "Catha edulis". African plants – a Photo Guide. Frankfurt/Main: Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg.