Khewra Salt Mine
Rock salt | |
Production | 3,50,000 MT |
---|---|
Financial year | 2019–20 |
History | |
Opened | 1872 |
Active | 150 years |
Owner | |
Company | Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation |
Website | www.PMDC.gov.pk |
The Khewra Salt Mine (
The mine is famous for its production of pink Khewra salt, often marketed as
Geology
The Khewra Salt Mine is excavated within the base of a thick layer of highly folded, faulted, and stretched Ediacaran to early Cambrian evaporites of the Salt Range Formation. This geological formation consists of a basal layer of crystalline halite, which is intercalated with potash salts. This basal layer is overlain by gypsiferous marl, which is covered by interlayered beds of gypsum and dolomite with infrequent seams of oil shale. These strata are overlain by 200 to 500 meters (660 to 1,640 ft) of Neoproterozoic to Eocene sedimentary rocks that have been uplifted and eroded along with the Salt Range Formation to create the Salt Range at the southern edge of the Pothohar Plateau. The Ediacaran to early Cambrian evaporites of the Salt Range Formation have been thrust southward over Neoproterozoic to Eocene sedimentary rocks by many kilometers, which tectonically incorporated fragments of the underlying younger strata within these evaporites. The Salt Range is the southern edge of a well-described fold-and-thrust belt, which underlies the entire Pothohar Plateau and developed south of the Himalayas as a result of the ongoing collision between India and Eurasia.[12][13][14]
Palynomorphs (organic microfossils) have been used to make inferences about the ages of the Salt Range Formation and its salt layers that are exposed within the Khewra Salt Mine. For example, while working with Geological Survey of India in the 1930s and 1940s, Birbal Sahni reported finding evidence of angiosperms, gymnosperms, and insects inside the mine which he regarded as originating from the Eocene period.[15] However, on the basis of additional geologic data, later research has concluded that these palynomorphs were contaminants.[16][17][18]
History
The Khewra Salt Mine is also known as Mayo Salt Mine, in honour of
In 1872, some time after they had taken over the Sikhs' territory, the British developed the mine further.[8] They found the mining to have been inefficient, with irregular and narrow tunnels and entrances that made the movement of labourers difficult and dangerous. The supply of water inside the mine was poor, and there was no storage facility for the mined salt. The only road to the mine was over difficult, rocky terrain. To address these problems the government levelled the road, built warehouses, provided a water supply, improved the entrances and tunnels, and introduced a better mechanism for excavation of salt. Penalties were introduced to control salt smuggling.[23]
Location
Khewra Salt Mine is in
Production
Estimates of the total reserves of salt in the mines range from 82 million tons[
The mine comprises nineteen stories, of which eleven are below ground. From the entrance, the mine extends about 730 meters (2,400 feet) into the mountains, and the total length of its tunnels is about 40 km (25 mi).
Khewra salt is Pakistan's best known rock salt.
In 2008 the Government of Pakistan decided to sell off seventeen profitable organisations including Khewra salt mines,[41] but the plan was shelved. The mine is now operated by the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation, a government department.[33]
Tourism
Khewra Salt Mine is a major tourist attraction, with around 250,000 visitors a year,
Other visitor attractions in the mine include the 75-meter-high (245-foot-high) Assembly Hall; Pul-Saraat, a salt bridge with no pillars over a 25-meter-deep (80-foot-deep) brine pond; Sheesh Mahal (Palace of Mirrors), where salt crystals are light pink; and a café.[24][25]
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A mosque has been built inside the salt mines.
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Rock salt makes for some beautiful texture on the walls and ceiling.
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It is said that these rooms were mined during the Mughal era.
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Reflection in salty water at Khewra Salt Mines.
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Crystal Valley, a tunnel with crystals in the wall and roof, illuminated by colourful lights.
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Artistic work with rock salt.
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Copy of Minaar-e-Pakistan made of rock salt.
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Walls made of rock salt.
Other projects
The Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation established the Mine Survey Institute at Khewra in 1971.[7] The institute conducts mine surveys, organises mining-related courses for the miners[47] and has establishes the Khewra Model High School and the Khewra Women College.[7][47] More recently the miners won an important environmental case against the mining company for the provision of unpolluted drinking water.[48] The water available to the residents of Khewra had been polluted by salt, coal and other nearby mining activity. This case is internationally recognised as important with regard to the relationship between humanity and the environment.[49][50][51]
In 2003, while the Government of Pakistan was looking for ways to increase the country's strategic store of oil to 90 days, the PMDC put forward a proposal to use the Khewra mines to store strategic oil reserves.[27] Scientific reports confirmed the feasibility of this proposal, but it was turned down.[52]
Flooding in 2010
In 2010, during torrential rain all over Pakistan, water from a nearby nullah entered the mine,[53] reaching a depth of two feet (61 cm) and blocking the exits, after which the mine was closed.[54] It was subsequently reopened and remains open.[55]
References
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- ISBN 978-0-306-30315-9. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-56656-240-9. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
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- ^ ISBN 978-1-61783-117-1. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ a b c d e "Khewra Salt Mines Project". Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation. Privatisation Commission of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-74104-542-0. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
- ^ a b Pennington, Matthew (25 January 2005). "Pakistan salt mined old-fashioned way mine". The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-92-3-101056-9. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- ^ OCLC 623259129. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
- ^ Jaumé, S.C. and Lillie, R.J., 1988. Mechanics of the Salt Range‐Potwar Plateau, Pakistan: A fold‐and‐thrust belt underlain by evaporites. Tectonics, 7(1), pp.57-71.
- ^ Grelaud, S., Sassi, W., de Lamotte, D.F., Jaswal, T. and Roure, F., 2002. Kinematics of eastern Salt Range and South Potwar basin (Pakistan): a new scenario. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 19(9), pp.1127-1139.
- ^ Richards, L., King, R.C., Collins, A.S., Sayab, M., Khan, M.A., Haneef, M., Morley, C.K. and Warren, J., 2015. Macrostructures vs microstructures in evaporite detachments: An example from the Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 113, pp.922-934.
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- ^ Schindewolf, O.H. and Seilacher, A., 1955. Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Kambriums in der Salt Range (Pakistan): Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaflichen Klasse Abhandlungen, 10, pp.261-446.
- ^ Teichert, C., 1964. Recent German work on the Cambria and Saline Series of the Salt Range: West Pakistan: Pakistan Geological Survey Records, 11, no. 1, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Hughes, N.C., 2017. Biostratigraphical dating conundrums in the Cambrian and earlier stratigraphy of the Indian subcontinent: The Palaeobotanist, 66, pp. 1–15.
- ISBN 978-1-271-48500-0. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
- ^ Karen Zarindast (Reporter) (8 November 2011). Pakistan salt mine is open to tourists in the Punjab province (News report). BBC. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- ^ a b c d Faisal Khan, Zeeshan (12 December 2010). "Khewra: Above the salt". Dawn. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
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- ^ a b F. I. Dar; Safdar Vail (22 December 2005). "The beauty of Khewra Salt Range". Dawn. Archived from the original on 21 January 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ a b c d Sheikh, FD (12 April 2008). "Khewra Salt Mines: A fascinating place". Dawn. Archived from the original on 21 January 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-8225-4682-5. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ a b c "PMDC offers salt mine for oil reserves". Dawn. 28 February 2003. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ Robert V. Titler; Paul Curry (14 September 2011). Chemical Analysis of major constituents and trace contaminants of Rock Salt (PDF) (Technical report). Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. p. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
- ^ Qazi Muhammad Sharif; Mumtaz Hussain; Muhammad Tahir Hussain (December 2007). Viqar Uddin Ahmad; Muhammad Raza Shah (eds.). "Chemical Evaluation of Major Salt Deposits of Pakistan" (PDF). Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan. 29 (26). Chemical Society of Pakistan: 570–571. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
- ^ a b Dorothy K. Moore. "The Significance of Salt" (PDF). Eugene: Material Science Institute, University of Oregon. p. 33. Archived from the original on 1 March 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ISBN 978-81-8205-483-7. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-7494-4063-3. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ^ a b "Khewra Salt mine". Salt mine. Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation. Archived from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
- ^ Bushra Khalid. "Effect of Temperature and Humidity on Salt Mine Environment" (PDF). Pakistan Journal of Meteorology. 7 (13). Pakistan Meteorological Department: 73. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-58340-768-4. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
- ASIN B007HDU8LY. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ "Salt production target on track this year". Daily Times. Associated Press of Pakistan. 12 November 2003. Archived from the original on 5 November 2004. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ^ "PMDC to increase salt exports". Dawn. 29 December 2004. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ISBN 978-1-86189-185-3. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
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- ^ "Steel Mills to be sold this fiscal". The Nation. 14 November 2008. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ISBN 978-90-04-06117-0. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
- ^ "Salt mine resort for asthma patients". Dawn. 27 March 2007. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ Shahzad, Khurram (26 March 2010). "Asthma treatment in Pakistani salt mine". The Telegraph. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ "Prepare to 'visit Pakistan Year 2007'". Daily Times. 8 December 2006. Archived from the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ "Khewra railway station restored". Dawn. 5 February 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ a b "Mine Survey Institute". Khewra Services. PMDC. Archived from the original on 12 April 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ General Secretary, West Pakistan Salt Miners Labor Union Khewra, Jhelum v. The Director, Industries and Mineral Development, Punjab, Lahora, Human Rights Case No. 120 of 1993, (1994) S.C.M.R. at 2061.
- ^ "Pakistan – Constitutional Rights, Mining Operations, Water Pollution". UNESCAP Virtual Conference. United Nations. 30 October 2003. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- UNHCRpaper on Human Rights and the environment
- ISBN 978-90-411-2708-2. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
- ^ "Building oil reserves with taxpayers' money". Dawn. 27 November 2006. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ "Floodwaters enter Khewra Salt Mines". The Nation. 7 August 2010. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ "Breach floods 10 villages". The Express Tribune. 12 August 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ "Khewra salt mines: Healing heights". 14 October 2013.
External links
- Khewra Salt Mines – Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation