Khmer people
ជនជាតិខ្មែរ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Total population | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. 18–19 million[1] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Regions with significant populations | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cambodia | 16,000,000[2] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnam | 1,320,000[3] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thailand | 1,146,685[2] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
United States | 331,733[4] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Languages | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Khmer | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Religion | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Predominantly Theravada Buddhism; Hinduism and animism (historically); minorities Christianity | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Related ethnic groups | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other Austroasiatic peoples |
The Khmer people (
The majority of the Khmers follow
Distribution
The majority of the world's Khmers live in Cambodia, the population of which is over 95% Khmer.[14][15][16]
Thailand, Vietnam and Laos
There are also significant Khmer populations native to
Province | 1990 | 2000 |
---|---|---|
Buriram[19]
|
0.3% | 27.6% |
Chanthaburi[20]
|
0.6% | 1.6% |
Maha Sarakham[21]
|
0.2% | 0.3% |
Roi Et[22]
|
0.4% | 0.5% |
Sa Kaew[23]
|
— | 1.9% |
Sisaket[24]
|
30.2% | 26.2% |
Surin[25]
|
63.4% | 47.2% |
Trat[26]
|
0.4% | 2.1% |
Ubon Ratchathani[27]
|
0.8% | 0.3% |
Province | 2019 |
---|---|
Sóc Trăng[28]
|
30.18% |
Trà Vinh[29]
|
31.53% |
Kiên Giang[30]
|
12.26% |
Province | 2015 |
---|---|
Champassak[10]
|
0.95% |
Western nations
Due to migration as a result of the
History
Origin myths
According to one Khmer legend attributed by
A more popular legend, reenacted to this day in the traditional Khmer wedding ceremony and taught in elementary school, holds that Cambodia was created when an merchant named Kaundinya I (commonly referred to as Preah Thong) married Princess Soma, a Nāga (Neang Neak) princess. Kaundinya sailed to Southeast Asia following an arrow he saw in a dream. Upon arrival he found an island called Kok Thlok and, after conquering Soma's Naga army, he fell in love with her. As a dowry, the father of princess Soma drank the waters around the island, which was revealed to be the top of a mountain, and the land below that was uncovered became Cambodia. Kaundinya and Soma and their descendants became known as the Khmers and are said to have been the rulers of Funan, Chenla and the Khmer Empire.[32] This myth further explains why the oldest Khmer wats, or temples, were always built on mountaintops, and why today mountains themselves are still revered as holy places.
Arrival in Southeast Asia
The Khmers, an
The Khmers developed the
The Khmer are considered a part of the
During the Funan period (1st–6th centuries CE) the Khmer also acquired Buddhism, the concept of the
These two states, even after conquest by Chenla in the sixth century, were constantly at war with each other and smaller principalities. During the Chenla period (5th–8th centuries), Khmers left the world's earliest known
Jayavarman II (802–830) revived Khmer power and built the foundation for the Khmer Empire, founding three capitals—Indrapura, Hariharalaya, and Mahendraparvata—the archeological remains of which reveal much about his times. After winning a long civil war, Suryavarman I (reigned 1002–1050) turned his forces eastward and subjugated the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati. Consequently, he ruled over the greater part of present-day Thailand and Laos, as well as the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. This period, during which Angkor Wat was constructed, is considered the apex of Khmer civilization.
Khmer Empire (802–1431)
The Khmer kingdom became the Khmer Empire and the great temples of Angkor, considered an archeological treasure replete with detailed stone bas-reliefs showing many aspects of the culture, including some musical instruments, remain as monuments to the culture of the Cambodia. After the death of Suryavarman II (1113–1150), Cambodia lapsed into chaos until Jayavarman VII (1181–1218) ordered the construction of a new city. He was a Buddhist, and for a time, Buddhism became the dominant religion in Cambodia. As a state religion, however, it was adapted to suit the Deva Raja cult, with a Buddha Raja being substituted for the former Shiva Raja or Vishnu Raja.
The rise of the Tai kingdoms of Sukhothai (1238) and Ayutthaya (1350) resulted in almost ceaseless wars with the Khmers and led to the destruction of Angkor in 1431. They are said to have carried off 90,000 prisoners, many of whom were likely dancers and musicians.[36] The period following 1432, with the Khmer people bereft of their treasures, documents, and human culture bearers, was one of precipitous decline.
Post-empire (1431–present)
In 1434, King Ponhea Yat made Phnom Penh his capital, and Angkor was abandoned to the jungle. Due to continued Siamese and Vietnamese aggression, Cambodia appealed to France for protection in 1863 and became a French protectorate in 1864. During the 1880s, along with southern Vietnam and Laos, Cambodia was drawn into the French-controlled Indochinese Union. For nearly a century, the French exploited Cambodia commercially, and demanded power over politics, economics, and social life.
During the second half of the twentieth century, the political situation in Cambodia became chaotic. King Norodom Sihanouk (later, Prince, then again King), proclaimed Cambodia's independence in 1949 (granted in full in 1953) and ruled the country until March 18, 1970, when he was overthrown by General Lon Nol, who established the Khmer Republic. On April 17, 1975, Khmer Rouge, who under the leadership of Pol Pot combined Khmer nationalism and extreme Communism, came to power and virtually destroyed the Cambodian people, their health, morality, education, physical environment, and culture in the Cambodian genocide.
On January 7, 1979, Vietnamese forces
Culture and society
The culture of the ethnic Khmers is fairly homogeneous throughout their geographic range. Regional dialects exist, but are mutually intelligible. The standard is based on the dialect spoken throughout the Central Plain,[37] a region encompassed by the northwest and central provinces. The varieties of Khmer spoken in this region are representative of the speech of the majority of the population. A unique and immediately recognizable dialect has developed in Phnom Penh that, due to the city's status as the national capital, has been modestly affected by recent French and Vietnamese influence. Other dialects are Northern Khmer dialect, called Khmer Surin by Khmers, spoken by over a million Khmer native to Northeast Thailand; and Khmer Krom spoken by the millions of Khmer native to the Mekong Delta regions of Vietnam adjacent to Cambodia and their descendants abroad. A little-studied dialect known as Western Khmer, or Cardamom Khmer, is spoken by a small, isolated population in the Cardamom Mountain range extending from Cambodia into eastern Central Thailand. Although little studied, it is unique in that it maintains a definite system of vocal register that has all but disappeared in other dialects of modern Khmer.
The modern Khmer strongly identify their ethnic identity with their religious beliefs and practices, which combine the tenets of Theravada Buddhism with elements of indigenous ancestor-spirit worship, animism and shamanism.[38] Most Cambodians, whether or not they profess to be Buddhists or other faiths, believe in a rich supernatural world. Several types of supernatural entities are believed to exist; they make themselves known by means of inexplicable sounds or happenings. Among these phenomena are kmaoch ខ្មោច (ghosts), pret ប្រែត (comes in many forms depending on their punishments) and beisach បិសាច (monsters) [these are usually the spirits of people who have died a violently, untimely, or unnatural deaths]; arak អារក្ស (evil spirits, devils), ahp krasue, neak ta អ្នកតា (tutelary spirit or entity residing in inanimate objects; land, water, trees etc.), chomneang/mneang phteah ជំនាងផ្ទះ/ម្នាងផ្ទះ(house guardians), meba មេបា (ancestral spirits), and mrenh kongveal ម្រេញគង្វាល (little mischief spirit guardians dressed in red).[39] All spirits must be shown proper respect, and, with the exception of the mneang phteah and mrenh kongveal, they can cause trouble ranging from mischief to serious life-threatening illnesses.
The majority of the Cambodians live in rural villages either as rice farmers or fishermen. Their life revolves around the Wat (temple) and the various Buddhist ceremonies throughout the year.
However, if Cambodians become ill, they will frequently see a kru khmae (shaman/healer), whom they believe can diagnose which of the many spirits has caused the illness and recommend a course of action to propitiate the offended spirit, thereby curing the illness.
Cambodian culture has influenced Thai and Lao cultures and vice versa. Many Khmer loanwords are found in Thai and Lao, while many Lao and Thai loanwords are found in Khmer. The
Genetics
The Khmer people are genetically closely related to other Southeast Asian populations. They show strong genetic relation to other
The genetic testing website 23andMe groups Khmer people under the "Indonesian, Khmer, Thai & Myanmar" reference population. This reference population contains people who have had recent ancestors from Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand.[48]
Immunoglobulin G
Hideo Matsumoto, professor
See also
- Anvaya (organization)
- Cambodian cuisine
- Khmer Krom
- Northern Khmers
References
- Benjamin Walker, Angkor Empire: A History of the Khmer of Cambodia, Signet Press, Calcutta, 1995.
Notes
- ^ a b Hattaway, Paul, ed. (2004), "Khmer", Peoples of the Buddhist World, William Carey Library, p. 133
- ^ a b c d "General Population Census of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2019" (PDF). National Institute of Statistics. Ministry of Planning. June 2019. Archived from the original on November 13, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
- ^ "Report on Results of the 2019 Census" (in Vietnamese). General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 9, 2020. Retrieved May 1, 2020.
- ^ "ASIAN ALONE OR IN COMBINATION WITH ONE OR MORE OTHER RACES, AND WITH ONE OR MORE ASIAN CATEGORIES FOR SELECTED GROUPS". United States Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. 2017. Archived from the original on February 14, 2020. Retrieved September 17, 2015.
- ^ Danaparamita, Aria (November 21, 2015). "Solidarité". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on June 20, 2019. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
- ^ "Estimated Resident Population by Country of Birth, 30 June 1992 to 2016". stat.data.abs.gov.au. Archived from the original on March 11, 2019. Retrieved April 6, 2017.
- ^ "Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada". Statistics Canada. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved March 20, 2013.
- ^ 令和5年12月末現在における在留外国人数について
- ^ "2006 and 2013 Census: Cambodians- Facts and Figures". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Archived from the original on July 4, 2012. Retrieved December 10, 2009.
- ^ a b "Results of Population and Housing Census 2015" (PDF). Lao Statistics Bureau. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved May 1, 2020.
- ^ "Ausländeranteil in Deutschland bis 2018". De.statista.com. Archived from the original on January 30, 2017. Retrieved January 2, 2017.
- ^ "Population by country of birth and year". Archived from the original on February 11, 2021. Retrieved February 2, 2021.
- ^ "Wachtregister asiel 2012-2021". npdata.be. Archived from the original on October 1, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
- ^ a b https://web.archive.org/web/20191113151101/http://www.nis.gov.kh/nis/Census2019/Provisional%20Population%20Census%202019_English_FINAL.pdf
- ^ "Ethnic groups statistics - countries compared". Nationmaster. Archived from the original on September 7, 2012. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
- ^ "Birth Rate". CIA – The World Factbook. Cia.gov. Archived from the original on August 18, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2013.
- ^ [1] Archived May 9, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The Cambodian of Laos". Retrieved January 19, 2024.
- ^ "Buriram" (PDF). Web.nso.go.th. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 4, 2019. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
- ^ "Chanthaburi" (PDF). Nso.go.th. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 4, 2019. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
- ^ "Maha Sarakham" (PDF). Web.nso.go.th. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 4, 2019. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
- ^ "Roi Et" (PDF). Web.nso.go.th. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 4, 2019. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
- ^ "Sakaeo" (PDF). Web.nso.go.th. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 4, 2019. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
- ^ "Si Sa Ket" (PDF). Web.nso.go.th. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 29, 2019. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
- ^ "Surin" (PDF). Web.nso.go.th. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 15, 2012. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
- ^ "Khat" (PDF). Web.nso.go.th. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 8, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
- ^ "Ubon Ratchathani" (PDF). Web.nso.go.t. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 4, 2019. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
- ISBN 978-604-75-1532-5.
- ISBN 978-604-75-1532-5.
- ISBN 978-604-75-1532-5.
- ^ D'après l'épigraphie cambodgienne du X° siècle, les rois des "Kambuja" prétendaient descendre d'un ancêtre mythique éponyme, le sage ermite Kambu, et de la nymphe céleste Mera, dont le nom a pu être forgé d'après l'appellation ethnique "khmèr" (George Coedes). [2][permanent dead link]; See also: Indianised States of Southeast Asia, 1968, p 66, George Coedes.
- ^ Miriam T. Stark (2006). "9 Textualized Places, Pre-Angkorian Khmers and Historicized Archaeology by Miriam T. Stark - Cambodia's Origins and the Khok Thlok Story" (PDF). University of Hawaii. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved January 15, 2018.
- ^ Ross, Russell R. (December 1987). Cambodia: A Country Study (PDF). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 21, 2022. Retrieved February 22, 2022.
- ISBN 9780429961601. Archivedfrom the original on April 17, 2023. Retrieved February 22, 2022.
- PMID 26482917.
- ^ Thailand 1969:151, Blanchard 1958:27
- ISBN 0-300-01314-0
- ^ Faith Traditions in Cambodia Archived August 22, 2006, at the Wayback Machine; pg. 8; accessed August 21, 2006
- ^ //http://anarchak.com/article/40347// Archived February 20, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b [3] Archived March 11, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Brandon 1967, p. 20
- ^ a b Fletcher 2001
- ^ Becker 1998, p. 330
- ^ "Royal ballet of Cambodia on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity". ich.unesco.org. November 07, 2003.
Inscribed in 2008 (3.COM)
- S2CID 23979421.
- PMID 23166502.
- PMID 24531965.
- ^ 23andMe Reference Populations & Regions Archived June 14, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. (n.d.). 23andMe. Retrieved June 14, 2020.
- ^ PMID 19212099.