Khosrow II

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Khosrow II
𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩
Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire
1st reign590
PredecessorHormizd IV
SuccessorBahram Chobin
2nd reign591 – 25 February 628
PredecessorBahram Chobin
SuccessorKavad II
Bornc. 570
Died(628-02-28)28 February 628 (aged around 57–58)
Ctesiphon
Consort
House of Sasan
FatherHormizd IV
MotherUnnamed Ispahbudhan noblewoman
ReligionZoroastrianism

Khosrow II (spelled Chosroes II in classical sources;

Middle Persian: 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩, romanized: Husrō and Khosrau), commonly known as Khosrow Parviz (New Persian: خسرو پرویز, "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great Sasanian king (shah) of Iran, ruling from 590 to 628, with an interruption of one year.[1]

Khosrow II was the son of

Achaemenids, conquering the rich Roman provinces of the Middle East; much of his reign was spent in wars with the Byzantine Empire and struggling against usurpers such as Bahram Chobin and Vistahm
.

Khosrow II began

allied with Turks, started a risky but successful counterattack deep into Persia's heartland. Dissatisfied with the war, the feudal families of the empire supported a coup in which Khosrow II was deposed and killed by his estranged son Sheroe, who took power as Kavad II. This led to a civil war and interregnum
in the empire and the reversal of all Sasanian gains in the war against the Byzantines.

In works of Persian literature such as the Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and Nizami Ganjavi's (1141–1209) Khosrow and Shirin, a famous tragic romance and a highly elaborated fictional version of Khosrow's life made him one of the greatest heroes of the culture, as much a lover as a king. Khosrow and Shirin tells the story of his love for the Armenian/Roman (originally Aramean) princess Shirin, who becomes his queen after a lengthy courtship strewn with mishaps and difficulties.

Name

Main article: Khosrow (word)

"Khosrow" is the

Pseudo-Juansher, writing around the year 800) and in Armenian as Aprouēž Xosrov.[4][5]

Background

Khosrow II was born in c. 570; he was the son of

Kingdom of Iberia and make it into a Sasanian province.[1] Furthermore, Khosrow II also served as the governor of Arbela in Mesopotamia sometime before his accession to the throne.[7]

Rebellion of Bahram Chobin

Overthrow of Hormizd IV and accession

Drachma of Hormizd IV

In 590, Hormizd IV had his prominent general

xwarrah, was given to the first Sasanian shah, Ardashir I (r. 224–242) and his family following the latter's conquest of the Parthian Empire.[9] This was now, however, disputed by Bahram Chobin, thus marking the first time in Sasanian history that a Parthian dynast challenged the legitimacy of the Sasanian family by rebelling.[9][10]

Meanwhile, Hormizd tried to come to terms with his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih, who according to the Syriac writer Joshua the Stylite, both "equally hated Hormizd".[1][11] The two brothers overthrew Hormizd in a seemingly bloodless palace revolution.[1][11] They had Hormizd blinded with a red-hot needle, and put Khosrow II on the throne.[1][12] Sometime in the summer of 590, the two brothers then had Hormizd killed, with at least the implicit approval of Khosrow II.[1] Nevertheless, Bahram Chobin continued his march to Ctesiphon, now with the pretext of claiming to avenge Hormizd.[13]

Khosrow then took a carrot and stick attitude, and wrote a message to Bahram Chobin, stressing his rightful claim to the Sasanian kingship: "Khosrow, kings of kings, ruler over the ruling, lord of the peoples, prince of peace, salvation of men, among gods the good and eternally living man, among men the most esteemed god, the highly illustrious, the victor, the one who rises with the sun and who lends the night his eyesight, the one famed through his ancestors, the king who hates, the benefactor who engaged the Sasanians and saved the Iranians their kingship—to Bahram, the general of the Iranians, our friend.... We have also taken over the royal throne in a lawful manner and have upset no Iranian customs.... We have so firmly decided not to take off the diadem that we even expected to rule over other worlds, if this were possible.... If you wish your welfare, think about what is to be done."[14]

Fight

Bahram Chobin fighting Sasanian loyalists near Ctesiphon

Bahram Chobin, however, ignored his warning—a few days later, he reached the Nahrawan Canal near Ctesiphon, where he fought Khosrow's men, who were heavily outnumbered, but managed to hold Bahram Chobin's men back in several clashes. However, Khosrow's men eventually began losing their morale, and were in the end defeated by Bahram Chobin's forces. Khosrow, together with his two uncles, his wives, and a retinue of 30 nobles, thereafter fled to Byzantine territory, while Ctesiphon fell to Bahram Chobin.[1] Bahram Chobin declared himself king of kings in the summer of 590, asserting that the first Sasanian king Ardashir I (r. 224–242) had usurped the throne of the Arsacids, and that he now was restoring their rule.[8]

Bahram Chobin tried to support his cause with the

fire altar flanked by two attendants.[8] Regardless, many nobles and priests still chose to side with the inexperienced and less dominant Khosrow II.[8]

In order to get the attention of the Byzantine emperor

Iberia and Armenia, effectively ceding control of Lazistan to the Byzantines.[1]

Return to Iran

Illustration of the forces of Bahram Chobin and Khosrow II fighting.

In 591, Khosrow moved to

Nisibis and Martyropolis quickly defected to them,[1] and Bahram Chobin's commander Zatsparham was defeated and killed.[16] One of Bahram Chobin's other commanders, Bryzacius, was captured in Mosil and had his nose and ears cut off, and was thereafter sent to Khosrow, where he was killed.[17][18] Khosrow II and the Byzantine general Narses then penetrated deeper into Bahram's territory, seizing Dara and then Mardin in February, where Khosrow was re-proclaimed king.[16] Shortly after this, Khosrow sent one of his Iranian supporters, Mahbodh, to capture Ctesiphon, which he managed to accomplish.[19]

Map of the Roman-Sasanian frontier during Late Antiquity, including the 591 border that was established between the two empires after Khosrow II's victory over Bahram Chobin.

At the same time a force of 8,000 Iranians under Vistahm and Vinduyih and 12,000 Armenians under Mushegh II Mamikonian invaded Adurbadagan.[8] Bahram Chobin tried to disrupt the force by writing a letter to Mushegh II, the letter said: "As for you Armenians who demonstrate an unseasonable loyalty, did not the house of Sasan destroy your land and sovereignty? Why otherwise did your fathers rebel and extricate themselves from their service, fighting up until today for your country?"[20] Bahram Chobin in his letter promised that the Armenians would become partners of the new Iranian empire ruled by a Parthian dynastic family if he accepted his proposal to betray Khosrow II.[21] Mushegh, however, rejected the offer.[21]

Bahram Chobin was then defeated at the

rebellion of Vistahm (590/1–596 or 594/5–600).[23]

Consolidation of the empire

Domestic affairs and relations with the Byzantines

With Khosrow's rule now restored, his aim was to now consolidate his grip over his realm, which included showing tolerance and support to his Christian subjects.

Nestorian Christianity without angering the Sasanian court.[1]

The Iranians and the Byzantines enjoyed good relations with each other for the first eleven years. This was apparent in their management of the issues that had risen in Armenia. In the 590s, many Armenian nobles and their supporters sought asylum in Iran to avoid being conscripted for Maurice's Balkan campaigns. The open borders between the two empires meant that nobles could freely immigrate to Iran and get promoted. However, when they showed signs of aspiring to fight the Byzantines, the Iranians worked together with the Byzantines to deal with the issue.[citation needed]

Revolt of Vistahm

After his victory, Khosrow rewarded his uncles with high positions: Vinduyih became treasurer and first minister and Vistahm received the post of spahbed of the East, encompassing Tabaristan and Khorasan, which was the traditional homeland of the Ispahbudhan.[11][25] Soon, however, Khosrow changed his intentions: trying to disassociate himself from his father's murder, he decided to execute his uncles. The Sasanian monarchs' traditional mistrust of over-powerful magnates and Khosrow's personal resentment of Vinduyih's patronising manner certainly contributed to this decision. Vinduyih was soon put to death, according to a Syriac source captured while trying to flee to his brother in the East.[11][26]

Drachma of Vistahm, minted at Ray

At the news of his brother's murder, Vistahm rose in open revolt. According to

Hephthalite princes of Transoxiana, Shaug and Pariowk.[11][27] The date of Vistahm's uprising is uncertain. From his coinage, it is known that his rebellion lasted for seven years. The commonly accepted dates are ca. 590–596, but some scholars like J.D. Howard–Johnston and Parvaneh Pourshariati push its outbreak later, in 594/5, to coincide with the Armenian Vahewuni rebellion.[23]

As Vistahm began to threaten

Gilan, while several Armenian contingents of the royal army rebelled and defected to Vistahm. Finally, Khosrow called upon the services of the Armenian Smbat Bagratuni, who engaged Vistahm near Qumis. During the battle, Vistahm was murdered by Pariowk at Khosrow's urging (or, according to an alternative account, by his wife Gordiya). Nevertheless, Vistahm's troops managed to repel the royal army at Qumis, and it required another expedition by Smbat in the next year to finally end the rebellion.[11][28]

Abolition of the Lakhmid dynasty

In 600, Khosrow II executed

Caliphs' invasion and conquest of Lower Iraq, less than a decade after Khosrow's death.[30]

Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628

Initial Iranian invasion and dominance

See also: Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628
Sasanian territories in 620s
anachronistic illustration of the Battle of Nineveh (627) between Heraclius' army and the Persians under Khosrow II. Fresco by Piero della Francesca
, ca. 1452

Toward the beginning of his reign, Khosrow II had good relations with the

Asia Minor, and in 608 advanced into Chalcedon
.

In 610, Heraclius revolted against Phocas and killed him, crowning himself as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. He then tried to negotiate peace with Khosrow II by sending diplomats to his court. Khosrow, however, rejected their offer and said: "That kingdom belongs to me, and I shall enthrone Maurice's son, Theodosius, as emperor. [As for Heraclius], he went and took the rule without our order and now offers us our own treasure as gifts. But I shall not stop until I have him in my hands." Khosrow then had the diplomats executed.[31]

In 613 and 614, General Shahrbaraz besieged and captured

Danube River.[32] In 622/3, Rhodes and several other islands in the eastern Aegean fell to the Sasanians, threatening a naval assault on Constantinople.[33][34][35][36] Such was the despair in Constantinople that Heraclius considered moving the government to Carthage in Africa.[37]

Turko-Hephthalite invasion

In ca. 606/607, Khosrow recalled

Spahan in central Iran. Smbat, with the aid of an Iranian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Turko-Hephthalites from Iran, and plundered their domains in eastern Khorasan, where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat.[38] Khosrow then gave Smbat the honorific title Khosrow Shun ("the Joy or Satisfaction of Khosrow"),[38] while his son Varaztirots II Bagratuni received the honorific name Javitean Khosrow ("Eternal Khosrow").[38][39]

Sebeos describes the event as:

He [Khosrow] ordered that a huge elephant be adorned and brought to the chamber. He commanded that [Smbat's son] Varaztirots' (who was called Javitean Khosrow by the king), be seated atop [the elephant]. And he ordered treasures scattered on the crowd. He wrote [to Smbat] a hrovartak [expressing] great satisfaction and summoned him to court with great honor and pomp. [Smbat] died in the 28th year of [Khosrow's] reign [618–19].[40]

Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence

Khosrau II being vanquished by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius
, from a plaque on a 12th-century French cross. This is only allegorical, as Khosrau II never actually submitted in person to Heraclius.

In 622, despite the major progress the Sasanians were making in the area of the Aegean Sea, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius was able to take the field with a powerful force. In 624, he advanced into northern Adurbadagan, where he was welcomed by Farrukh Hormizd and his son Rostam Farrokhzad who had rebelled against Khosrow.[41] Heraclius then began sacking several cities and temples, including the Adur Gushnasp temple.[32]

In 626 Heraclius captured

Bosphorus where their Slavic and Avar allies were located, due to heavy guarding of the strait by the Byzantine navy. Furthermore, the walls of Constantinople were easily defended against the siege towers and engines. Another reason was that the Persians and Slavs did not have a strong enough navy to skirt the sea walls and establish a channel of communication. The lack of supplies for the Avars eventually caused them to abandon the siege.[42] As this maneuver failed, Shahrbaraz' forces were defeated, and he withdrew his army from Anatolia
later in 628.

Following the

Third Perso-Turkic War in 627, Heraclius defeated the Iranian army at the Battle of Nineveh and advanced towards Ctesiphon. Khosrow II fled from his favorite residence, Dastagird (near Ctesiphon), without offering resistance.[32] Heraclius then captured Dastagird
and plundered it.

Overthrow and death

17th-century Shahnameh illustration of Khosrow II's arrest

After the capture of Dastagird, the son of Khosrow, Sheroe, was released by the feudal families of the

Ispahbudhan spahbed Farrukh Hormizd and his two sons Rostam Farrokhzad and Farrukhzad. Shahrbaraz of the Mihran family, the Armenian faction represented by Varaztirots II Bagratuni, and finally Kanadbak of the Kanārangīyān family.[43] On the night of 25 February, the night-watch of the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon, which would usually shout the name of the reigning shah, shouted the name of Sheroe instead, which indicated a coup d'état was taking place.[44] Sheroe, with Aspad Gushnasp leading his army, captured Ctesiphon and imprisoned Khosrow II in the house of a certain Mehr-Sepand (also known as Maraspand). Sheroe, who had now assumed the dynastic name of Kavad II, then ordered Aspad Gushnasp to lead the charge of accusations against the deposed shah. Khosrow, however, dismissed all accusations one by one.[45]

Kavad shortly proceeded to have all his brothers and half-brothers executed, including the heir Mardanshah, who was Khosrow's favourite son. The murder of all his brothers, "all well-educated, valiant, and chivalrous men",

war indemnity, along with the True Cross and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614.[49][50]

Due to Kavad's actions, his reign is seen as a turning point in Sasanian history, and has been argued by some scholars as playing a key role in the fall of the Sasanian Empire.[46] The overthrow and death of Khosrow culminated in a chaotic civil war, with the most powerful members of the nobility gaining full autonomy and starting to create their own government. The hostilities between the Persian (Parsig) and Parthian (Pahlav) noble-families were also resumed, which split up the wealth of the nation.[6] The civil war finally ended when Khosrow's eight year old grandson, Yazdegerd III, ascended the throne.[51] The young king, however, inherited a disintegrating empire, which was dealt its last blow in 651 during the Arab conquest of Iran.[52]

Religious policy and beliefs

Khosrow II, like all other Sasanian rulers, was an adherent of Zoroastrianism.[53] Since the 5th-century, the Sasanian monarchs had been made aware of the significance of the religious minorities in the realm, and as a result tried to homogenize them into a structure of administration where according to legal principles, all would be treated straightforwardly as mard / zan ī šahr, i.e. "man/woman [citizen] of the country".[54] Jews and (notably) Christians had accepted the concept of Iran and considered themselves part of the nation.[54]

During his reign there was constant conflict between Monophysite and Nestorian Christians. Khosrow favored the Monophysites, and ordered all his subjects to adhere to Monophysitism, perhaps under the influence of Shirin and the royal physician Gabriel of Sinjar, who both supported this faith. Khosrow also dispensed money or gifts to Christian shrines.[55] Khosrow's great tolerance to Christianity and friendship with the Christian Byzantines even made some Armenian writers think that Khosrow was a Christian.[55] His positive policy toward Christians (which, however, was probably politically motivated) made him unpopular with the Zoroastrian priests, and also made Christianity greatly spread around the Sasanian Empire.[56] During Khosrow's war with the Byzantines, Christian elites and organizations were incorporated into the Sasanian system, as part of his attempt to absorb the Byzantine realm into his expanded empire.[57] The condition of the Christian nobility reached its pinnacle under Khosrow.[58] Mushegh II Mamikonian, a prominent Armenian nakharar, is the first and only Christian nobleman that is praised by courtly historiographers, due to his rejection of the enticements of Bahram Chobin. His decision to choose Khosrow over his native Armenia, gained him a place in the Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran.[58] Smbat IV Bagratuni likewise led an illustrious career under Khosrow, rising to the office of frontier commander of Gorgan, possibly the most vital and contested area of the Sasanian realm. As a reward for his accomplishments in the east, Smbat was appointed the leader of the military jurisdiction in the Caucasus. Furthermore, his aristocratic house–the Bagratunids–was made the pillar of Sasanian authority in the area.[58]

Khosrow also paid attention to the Zoroastrians, and had various

fire temples constructed. However, this did not help the Zoroastrian church, which was in a heavy decline during his reign. According to Richard N. Frye, the Zoroastrian church under Khosrow "was noted for its devotion to luxury more than its devotion to thought."[59]

Music during the reign of Khosrow II

Khosrow II's reign was considered a

Sarkash, and Nagisa
.

Rock reliefs

A divine investiture scene, with the Zoroastrian divinities Ahura Mazda and Anahita each giving Khosrow II a diadem.

Khosrow restored the practice of erecting rock reliefs, after an absence of nearly three centuries, the last one being erected under

xwarrah, i.e. kingly glory.[1][60] On the left side panel, a boar hunt scene is depicted, portraying Khosrow on a boat whilst aiming a bow. On the right, there is a deer hunt scene. The relief, however, is unfinished, probably due to Khosrow's setback in the later stages of the war and his eventual downfall.[1]

  • The relief stone of Khosrow II during the coronation
    The relief stone of Khosrow II during the coronation
  • Equestrian statue of Khosrow II.
    Equestrian statue of Khosrow II.
  • Rock relief on the left side panel, depicting a boar hunt.
    Rock relief on the left side panel, depicting a boar hunt.
  • Drawing of an unfinished rock relief on the right side panel, depicting a deer hunt.
    Drawing of an unfinished rock relief on the right side panel, depicting a deer hunt.
  • This folio from Walters manuscript W.659 depicts Mount Bistun and the carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad.
    This folio from Walters manuscript W.659 depicts Mount Bistun and the carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad.

Coinage

Gold dinar of Khosrow II, minted in 625/6.

Khosrow, during his second reign, added the

xwarrah ("royal splendor") on his coins. He combined this together with the word abzōt ("he has increased"), making the full inscription thus read as: "Khosrow, he has increased the royal splendor" (Khūsrōkhwarrah abzōt).[61] The title of King of Kings–missing since the reign of Peroz I (r. 459–484)–was also restored on his coins.[61] According to Shayegan, Khosrow's adoption of the title was "undoubtedly a consequence of his Byzantine policy," and was signifying a resurrection of the ancient Achaemenid Empire.[62] His two successors, Kavad II (r. 628–628) and Ardashir III (r. 628–630), refrained from using the title, seemingly in order distance themselves from him.[61]

Khosrow II in Islamic tradition

Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi, along with a letter in which Khosrow was asked to preach the religion of Islam.[63][64]
The account as transmitted by Muslim tradition reads:

"In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Kisra, the great (leader/head) of the Persians. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in Allah and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but Allah and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of Allah, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe (in this life and the next). And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi."[64][65]

Islamic tradition further states that Khosrow II tore up Muhammad's letter

Hijaz (Muhammad) to him. When Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi told Muhammad how Khosrow had torn his letter to pieces, Muhammad promised the destruction of Khosrow II stating, "Even so, Allah shall destroy his kingdom."[66] Later, Badhan's men arrived in Medina and talked to Muhammad, ordering him to accompany them back to Khosrow II. Muhammad reportedly changed the subject, made it obvious he did not like their appearance, and responded by asking why they shave their beards and leave their mustaches to grow and be that large. When they said that's what their god orders them to do, he said his god orders him to cut his mustache and grow his beard. After he took control of the conversation like that, he went back on-topic and asked them to come back to him the next day. When they did, he informed them that Khosrow II had been killed by his son. Badhan's men responded angrily, threatening Muhammad to tell Badhan what he is saying about Khosrow II. To that, he responded by encouraging them to write to Badhan and to also tell him that Islam and its power will reach all that Khosrow II has ever ruled over. A few days later, Badhan received confirmation from Persia that Khosrow II was dead. As a consequence, he is said to have accepted Islam, and Muhammad kept him as a ruler over his people.[68]

In art

Capital with depiction of Khosrau II at Taq-e Bostan

The battles between Heraclius and Khosrow are depicted in a famous early Renaissance fresco by

History of the True Cross cycle in the church of San Francesco, Arezzo. Many Persian miniature
paintings depict events in his life, like his battles or his assassination.

Family

Khosrow was the son of

seven Parthian clans, who later fought against the Arabs during the Muslim invasion of Persia. However, this is most likely wrong since Kavad's mother was a Byzantine princess named Maria.[71]

Khosrow married three times: first to

Sasanian civil war of 628-632. Khosrow had a brother named Kavad and a sister named Mirhran, who was married to the Sasanian spahbed Shahrbaraz, and later bore him Shapur-i Shahrvaraz,[72] while Kavad married an unnamed woman who bore him Khosrow III
.

Family tree

Khosrow I
(531–579)		Shapur
(† 580s)
Hormizd IV
(579–590)		UnknownVistahm
(590/1–596
or
594/5–600)		VinduyihUnnamed noblewomanJushnas
Khosrow II
(590–628)		KavadMirhranMah-Adhur GushnaspNarsi
Javanshir
Khosrow III
(630)		Shapur-i Shahrvaraz
(630)		AnoshaganBistam
Farrukhzad Khosrow V
(631)
Shahriyar
(† 628)		UnknownKavad GushnaspTamahij

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khosrau II.

Notes

  1. ^ Also spelled "King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians".

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Howard-Johnston 2010.
  2. ^ Skjærvø 2000.
  3. ^ a b Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018.
  4. ^ Rapp 2014, p. 341.
  5. ^ Schmitt & Bailey 1986.
  6. ^ a b c Shahbazi 2004, pp. 466–467.
  7. ^ Hansman 1986, pp. 277–278.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i Shahbazi 1988, pp. 514–522.
  9. ^ a b Shayegan 2013, p. 810.
  10. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 96.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Shahbazi 1989, pp. 180–182.
  12. ^ Al-Tabari 1985–2007, v. 5: p. 49.
  13. ^ a b c Rezakhani 2017, p. 178.
  14. ^ Kia 2016, p. 241.
  15. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 172.
  16. ^ a b Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 173.
  17. ^ Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992, p. 251.
  18. ^ Rawlinson 2004, p. 509.
  19. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 174.
  20. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 128–129.
  21. ^ a b Pourshariati 2008, p. 129.
  22. ^ a b Kia 2016, p. 242.
  23. ^ a b Pourshariati 2008, pp. 133–134.
  24. ^ Daryaee & Rezakhani 2016, p. 43.
  25. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 131–132.
  26. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 132, 134.
  27. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 132–133, 135.
  28. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 136–137.
  29. ^ Landau-Tasseron 1996.
  30. ^ Frye 1984, p. 330.
  31. ^ Sebeos, chapter 24
  32. ^ a b c Meyer 1911.
  33. ^ Kia 2016, p. 223.
  34. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2005, p. 197.
  35. ^ Foss 1975, p. 725.
  36. ^ Howard-Johnston 2006, p. 33.
  37. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 88
  38. ^ a b c Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992, pp. 1363–1364.
  39. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 153–154.
  40. ^ Soudavar 2012.
  41. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 152–153.
  42. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 140.
  43. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 173.
  44. ^ Morony 2005, p. 92.
  45. ^ Tafazzoli 1987, p. 743.
  46. ^ a b Kia 2016, pp. 255–256.
  47. ^ Al-Tabari 1985–2007, v. 5: p. 398.
  48. ^ Al-Tabari 1985–2007, v. 5: p. 399.
  49. ^ Oman 1893, p. 212
  50. ^ Kaegi 2003, pp. 178, 189–190
  51. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 219.
  52. ^ Kia 2016, pp. 284–285.
  53. ^ Payne 2015, p. 2.
  54. ^ a b Daryaee 2014, p. 56.
  55. ^ a b Frye 1983, p. 166.
  56. ^ Frye 1983, p. 171.
  57. ^ Payne 2015, p. 200.
  58. ^ a b c Payne 2015, p. 168.
  59. ^ Frye 1983, p. 172.
  60. ^ a b c d Canepa 2018, p. 361.
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  62. ^ Shayegan 2013, pp. 806, 812–813.
  63. ^ al-Mubarakpuri 2002, p. 417.
  64. ^ a b Subhani, Ja'far. "Chapter 42: The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration". The Message. Retrieved 13 September 2023 – via Al-Islam.org.
  65. ^ Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, p. 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, p. 81; and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, p. 389.
  66. ^ a b Morony 1980, p. 185.
  67. ^ Mubarakpuri 2009, p. [page needed].
  68. ^ Ibn Kathir, Ismail (1367). Al Bidaya Wal Nihaya.
  69. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 179.
  70. ^ Shahbazi 2004b.
  71. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 236.
  72. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 205.

Sources

Further reading

Khosrow II
Sasanian dynasty
Born: c. 570 Died: February 628
Preceded by
King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran

590 		Succeeded by
Preceded by
King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran

591–628 		Succeeded by
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