Kickapoo people
tribal religious practices | |
Related ethnic groups | |
---|---|
Sauk, Fox, other Algonquian peoples |
The Kickapoo people (
Another band, the Tribu Kikapú, resides in Múzquiz Municipality in the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. Smaller bands live in Sonora, to the west, and Durango, to the southwest.
Name and etymology
According to some sources, the name "Kickapoo" (Giiwigaabaw in the
History
Pre-1800s
The Kickapoo are an
The earliest European contact with the Kickapoo tribe occurred during the
1800s to present
The United States acquired the territory east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River after it gained independence from the United Kingdom. As white settlers moved into the region from the United States' eastern areas, beginning in the early 19th century, the Kickapoo were under pressure. They negotiated with the United States over their territory in several treaties, including the Treaty of Vincennes, the Treaty of Grouseland, and the Treaty of Fort Wayne. They sold most of their lands to the United States and moved north to settle among the Wea.
Rising tensions between the regional tribes and the United States led to Tecumseh's War in 1811. The Kickapoo were among the closest allies of Shawnee leader Tecumseh. Many Kickapoo warriors participated in the Battle of Tippecanoe and the subsequent War of 1812 on the side of the British, hoping to expel the white American settlers from the region.
The 1819 treaty of Edwardsville saw the Kickapoo cede the entirety of their holdings in Illinois comprising nearly one-half area of the state, in exchange for a smaller tract on the Osage river in Missouri and $3,000 worth of goods.
The close of the war led to a change of federal Indian policy in the Indiana Territory, and later the state of Indiana. White American leaders began to advocate the removal of tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River, to extinguish their claims to lands wanted by white American settlers. The Kickapoo were among the first tribes to leave Indiana under this program. They accepted land in Kansas and an annual subsidy in exchange for leaving the state.
Language
Kickapoo | |
---|---|
Algic
| |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | kic |
Glottolog | kick1244 |
Kickapoo is a dialect of the Fox language, closely related to the dialects spoken by the Sauk people and Meskwaki people. Their language is included in the Central Algonquian languages subgroup of the Algonquian languages family, itself a member of the Algic languages family.
In 1985, the Kickapoo Nation's School in Horton, Kansas, began a language-immersion program for elementary school grades to revive teaching and use of the Kickapoo language in kindergarten through grade 6.[5] Efforts in language education continue at most Kickapoo sites.
In 2010, the Head Start Program at the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas reservation, which teaches the Kickapoo language, became "the first Native American school to earn Texas School Ready! (TSR) Project certification."[6]
Also in 2010, Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia participated in the elaboration of a Kickapoo alphabet.[7] The Kickapoo in Mexico are known for their whistled speech.
Texts,[8] recordings,[9] and a vocabulary[10] of the language are available.
The Kickapoo language and members of the Kickapoo tribe were featured in the movie
Writing system
A Kickapoo alphabet was developed by Paul Voorhis in 1974 and was revised in 1981.[citation needed] A new orthography is used by the Kickapoo Language Development Program in Oklahoma.[12]
Letter | a | aa | ch | e | ee | h | i | ii | k | m | n | o | oo | p | s | t | th | w | y |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pronunciation | ə | ɑ | tʃ | e | æ | h | ɪ | i | k | m | n | o | ɔ | p | s | t | θ | w | j |
Sounds
Consonants
Eleven consonant phonemes are used in Kickapoo:
Labial | Dental
|
Alveolar | Postalveolar/ Palatal |
Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stop
|
p | t | tʃ | k | ||
Fricative
|
θ | s | h | |||
Nasal | m | n | ||||
Approximant
|
j | w |
- The voiceless sounds can sometimes be voiced as [b, d, dʒ, ɡ, ð, z].
- /p/ in word-initial position can also be aspirated as [pʰ].
- /tʃ/ can also be pronounced as [ts].[13]
Vowels
- The eight vowel sounds in Kickapoo are: short /a, ɛ, i, o/ and long /aː, ɛː, iː, oː/.
- Sounds /a, ɛ, i, o/, can be phonetically heard as allophones [ə, ɛ~e, ɪ, ʊ~o] and /aː, ɛː, iː, oː/ can be heard as [äː, æː, iː, ɔː].[14]
Tribes and communities
Three federally recognized Kickapoo communities are in the United States in Kansas, Texas, and Oklahoma. The Mexican Kickapoo are closely tied to the Texas and Oklahoma communities. These groups migrate annually among the three locations to maintain connections. Indeed, the Texas and Mexican branches are the same cross-border nation, called the Kickapoo of Coahuila/Texas.[15]
Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Kansas
The tribe in Kansas was home to prophet Kenekuk, who was known for his astute leadership that allowed the small group to maintain their reservation. Kenekuk wanted to keep order among the tribe he was in, while living in Kansas. He also wanted to focus on keeping the identity of the Kickapoo people, because of all the relocations they had done.[16]
The basis of Kenekuk's leadership began in the religious revivals of the 1820s and 1830s, with a blend of Protestantism and Catholicism. Kenekuk taught his tribesmen and white audiences to obey God's commands, for sinners were damned to the pits of hell.[16] Once the Kickapoo people got relocated to Kansas they resisted the ideas of Protestantism and Catholicism and started focusing more on farming, so they could provide food for the rest of the tribe. After this had happened they remained together and claimed some of the original land that they had before it was taken by Americans.
The Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Kansas is located at 39°40′51″N 95°36′41″W / 39.68083°N 95.61139°W in the northeastern part of the state in parts of three counties:
Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Texas
The Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Texas is located at 28°36′37″N 100°26′19″W / 28.61028°N 100.43861°W on the
Other Kickapoo in Maverick County, Texas, constitute the "South Texas Subgroup of the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma". That tribe formerly owned 917.79 acres (3.7142 km2) of non-reservation land in Maverick County, primarily to the north of Eagle Pass, but has sold most of it to a developer. It has an office in that city.[18]
Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma
After being expelled from the
The reservation was short-lived. In 1893 under the Dawes Act, their communal tribal lands were broken up[19] and assigned to separate member households by allotments. The tribe's government was dismantled by the Curtis Act of 1898, which encouraged assimilation by Native Americans to the majority culture. Tribal members struggled under these conditions.
In the 1930s the federal and state governments encouraged tribes to reorganize their governments. This one formed the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma in 1936, under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act.[20]
Today the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma is headquartered in McLoud, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is in Oklahoma, Pottawatomie, and Lincoln counties. They have 2,719 enrolled tribal members.[21]
See also
Notes
- ^ Kickapoo History
- ^ Colin M., Betts. "Rediscovering the Mahouea". Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 58:23-33. Archived from the original on November 19, 2012. Retrieved January 9, 2012.
- ^ "Ratified Indian Treaty 107: Kickapoo - Edwardsville, Illinois, July 30, 1819". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
- ISBN 9780486143330.
- ^ Reaves, Michell Reaves (2001-08-11). "Canku Ota - Aug. 11, 2001 - Indians Value Their Language". Canku Ota (Many Paths), an Online Newsletter Celebrating Native America, Medill News Service (42). Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ "Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas First Native American Tribe to Achieve Texas School Ready! Certification". Newswise, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. 2010-01-26. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ "Kickapoo Language Prepared to be Written". Art Daily. 2010-04-12. Archived from the original on 16 March 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ "OLAC resources in and about the Kickapoo language". Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ "Recordings for study of the Shawnee, Kickapoo, Ojibwa, and Sauk-and-Fox :: American Philosophical Society". Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ "OLAC Record: Kickapoo vocabulary". 1988. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ "Kickapoo Language, Culture to be Featured in Film". Hiawatha World Online. 2007-09-12. Archived from the original on 2012-08-10. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ a b Bluecloud 2020, p. 17-24.
- ^ Voorhis, Paul H. (1974). Introduction to the Kickapoo Language. Indiana University Publications.
- ^ Bluecloud, Mosiah Salazar (2020). A Sketch Grammar of the Kickapoo Language. The University of Arizona.
- ^ Mager, Elisabeth (2011). "The Kickapoo Of Coahuila/Texas Cultural Implications Of Being A Cross-Border Nation" (PDF). Voices of Mexico (90): 36–40.
- ^ JSTOR 1183831.
- ^ Miller, Tom. On the Border: Portraits of America's Southwestern Frontier, pp. 67.
- ^ Maverick County Appraisal District property tax appraisals, 2007
- ^ Withington, W.R. (1952). "Kickapoo Titles in Oklahoma". 23 Oklahoma Bar Association Journal 1751. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ Annette Kuhlman, "Kickapoo" Archived 2014-12-30 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture, Oklahoma Historical Society, 2009 (accessed 21 February 2009)
- ^ Oklahoma Indian Affairs. Oklahoma Indian Nations Pocket Pictorial Directory. Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine, 2008:21
Further reading
- Grant Foreman, The Last Trek of the Indians: An Account of the Removal of the Indians from North of the Ohio River, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946
- Arrell M. Gibson, The Kickapoo: Lords of the Middle Border, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963
- Mager Elisabeth (2017) Ethnic Consciousness in Cultural Survival: The Morongo Band of Mission Indians and the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas . American Indian Culture and Research Journal: 2017, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 47–72.
- M. Christopher Nunley, "Kickapoo Indians," in The New Handbook of Texas, Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1996.
- Muriel H. Wright, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of Oklahoma, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986
- Joseph B. Herring, Kennekuk: The Kickapoo Prophet, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1988
External links
- Kickapoo Tribe of Kansas, official website
- Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma, official website
- Kickapoo language, alphabet and pronunciation
- Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, official website
- Matthew R. Garrett, Kickapoo Foreign Policy, 1650–1830, PhD dissertation, University of Nebraska, 2006, at Digital Commons
- Kickapoo Reservation, Kansas and Kickapoo Reservation, Texas United States Census Bureau
- "First Nations: Kickapoo", Lee Sultzman Tolatsga]
- Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .