Richard I of England
Richard I | |
---|---|
(more..) | |
Reign | 3 September 1189 – 6 April 1199 |
Coronation | 3 September 1189 |
Predecessor | Henry II |
Successor | John |
Regent | |
Born | 8 September 1157 Beaumont Palace, Oxford, England |
Died | 6 April 1199 (aged 41) Châlus, Aquitaine |
Burial | , Anjou, France |
Spouse | |
Father | Henry II of England |
Mother | Eleanor of Aquitaine |
Military career | |
Battles/wars |
Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199), known as Richard Cœur de Lion (
By the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father.[3] Richard was an important Christian commander during the Third Crusade, leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and achieving several victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, although he finalised a peace treaty and ended the campaign without retaking Jerusalem.[6]
Richard probably spoke both French and Occitan.[7] He was born in England, where he spent his childhood; before becoming king, however, he lived most of his adult life in the Duchy of Aquitaine, in the southwest of France. Following his accession, he spent very little time, perhaps as little as six months, in England. Most of his reign was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or actively defending his lands in France. Rather than regarding his kingdom as a responsibility requiring his presence as ruler, he has been perceived as preferring to use it merely as a source of revenue to support his armies.[8] Nevertheless, he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects.[9] He remains one of the few kings of England remembered more commonly by his epithet than his regnal number, and is an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France.[10]
Early life and accession in Aquitaine
Childhood
Richard was born on 8 September 1157,
Richard is often depicted as having been the favourite son of his mother.
While his father visited his lands from Scotland to France, Richard probably spent his childhood in England. His first recorded visit to the European continent was in May 1165, when his mother took him to Normandy. His
During his captivity, English prejudice against foreigners was used in a calculated way by his brother John to help destroy the authority of Richard's chancellor,
Richard was said to be very attractive; his hair was between red and blond, and he was light-eyed with a pale complexion. According to Clifford Brewer, he was 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m),[22] although that is unverifiable since his remains have been lost since at least the French Revolution. John, his youngest brother, was known to be 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m).
The
Marriage alliances were common among medieval royalty: they led to political alliances and peace treaties and allowed families to stake claims of succession on each other's lands. In March 1159, it was arranged that Richard would marry one of the daughters of
Early in the 1160s there had been suggestions Richard should marry
After Henry II fell seriously ill in 1170, he enacted his plan to divide his territories, although he would retain overall authority over his sons and their territories. His son Henry was
Revolt against Henry II
According to Ralph of Coggeshall, Henry the Young King instigated rebellion against Henry II; he wanted to reign independently over at least part of the territory his father had promised him, and to break away from his dependence on Henry II, who controlled the purse strings.[31] There were rumors that Eleanor might have encouraged her sons to revolt against their father.[32]
Henry the Young King abandoned his father and left for the French court, seeking the protection of Louis VII; his brothers Richard and Geoffrey soon followed him, while the five-year-old John remained in England. Louis gave his support to the three brothers and even knighted Richard, tying them together through vassalage.[33] Jordan Fantosme, a contemporary poet, described the rebellion as a "war without love".[34]
The brothers made an oath at the French court that they would not make terms with Henry II without the consent of Louis VII and the French barons.
In the meantime, Henry II had raised a very expensive army of more than 20,000 mercenaries with which to face the rebellion.[37] He marched on Verneuil, and Louis retreated from his forces. The army proceeded to recapture Dol and subdued Brittany. At this point Henry II made an offer of peace to his sons; on the advice of Louis the offer was refused.[40] Henry II's forces took Saintes by surprise and captured much of its garrison, although Richard was able to escape with a small group of soldiers. He took refuge in Château de Taillebourg for the rest of the war.[38] Henry the Young King and the Count of Flanders planned to land in England to assist the rebellion led by the Earl of Leicester. Anticipating this, Henry II returned to England with 500 soldiers and his prisoners (including Eleanor and his sons' wives and fiancées),[41] but on his arrival found out that the rebellion had already collapsed. William I of Scotland and Hugh Bigod were captured on 13 and 25 July respectively. Henry II returned to France and raised the siege of Rouen, where Louis VII had been joined by Henry the Young King after abandoning his plan to invade England. Louis was defeated and a peace treaty was signed in September 1174,[40] the Treaty of Montlouis.[42]
When Henry II and Louis VII made a truce on 8 September 1174, its terms specifically excluded Richard.[41][43] Abandoned by Louis and wary of facing his father's army in battle, Richard went to Henry II's court at Poitiers on 23 September and begged for forgiveness, weeping and falling at the feet of Henry, who gave Richard the kiss of peace.[41][43] Several days later, Richard's brothers joined him in seeking reconciliation with their father.[41] The terms the three brothers accepted were less generous than those they had been offered earlier in the conflict (when Richard was offered four castles in Aquitaine and half of the income from the duchy):[36] Richard was given control of two castles in Poitou and half the income of Aquitaine; Henry the Young King was given two castles in Normandy; and Geoffrey was permitted half of Brittany. Eleanor remained Henry II's prisoner until his death, partly as insurance for Richard's good behaviour.[44]
Final years of Henry II's reign
After the conclusion of the war, the process of pacifying the provinces that had rebelled against Henry II began. The King travelled to Anjou for this purpose, and Geoffrey dealt with Brittany. In January 1175 Richard was dispatched to Aquitaine to punish the barons who had fought for him. The historian John Gillingham notes that the chronicle of Roger of Howden is the main source for Richard's activities in this period. According to the chronicle, most of the castles belonging to rebels were to be returned to the state they were in 15 days before the outbreak of war, while others were to be razed.[45] Given that by this time it was common for castles to be built in stone, and that many barons had expanded or refortified their castles, this was not an easy task.[46] Roger of Howden records the two-month siege of Castillon-sur-Agen; while the castle was "notoriously strong", Richard's siege engines battered the defenders into submission.[47]
On this campaign, Richard acquired the name "the Lion" or "the Lionheart" due to his noble, brave and fierce leadership.
Henry seemed unwilling to entrust any of his sons with resources that could be used against him. It was suspected that the King had appropriated Alys of France, Richard's betrothed, as his mistress. This made a marriage between Richard and Alys technically impossible in the eyes of the Church, but Henry prevaricated: he regarded Alys's dowry, Vexin in the Île-de-France, as valuable. Richard was discouraged from renouncing Alys because she was the sister of King Philip II of France, a close ally.[51][52]
After his failure to overthrow his father, Richard concentrated on putting down internal revolts by the nobles of Aquitaine, especially in the territory of Gascony. The increasing cruelty of his rule led to a major revolt there in 1179. Hoping to dethrone Richard, the rebels sought the help of his brothers Henry and Geoffrey. The turning point came in the Charente Valley in the spring of 1179. The well-defended fortress of Taillebourg seemed impregnable. The castle was surrounded by a cliff on three sides and a town on the fourth side with a three-layer wall. Richard first destroyed and looted the farms and lands surrounding the fortress, leaving its defenders no reinforcements or lines of retreat. The garrison sallied out of the castle and attacked Richard; he was able to subdue the army and then followed the defenders inside the open gates, where he easily took over the castle in two days. Richard's victory at Taillebourg deterred many barons from thinking of rebelling and forced them to declare their loyalty to him. In 1181–82, Richard faced a revolt over the succession to the county of Angoulême. His opponents turned to Philip II of France for support, and the fighting spread through the Limousin and Périgord. The excessive cruelty of Richard's punitive campaigns aroused even more hostility.[53]
After Richard had subdued his rebellious barons he again challenged his father. From 1180 to 1183 the tension between Henry and Richard grew, as King Henry commanded Richard to pay homage to Henry the Young King, but Richard refused. Finally, in 1183 Henry the Young King and Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany, invaded Aquitaine in an attempt to subdue Richard. Richard's barons joined in the fray and turned against their duke. However, Richard and his army succeeded in holding back the invading armies, and they executed any prisoners. The conflict paused briefly in June 1183 when the Young King died. With the death of Henry the Young King, Richard became the eldest surviving son and therefore heir to the English crown. King Henry demanded that Richard give up Aquitaine (which he planned to give to his youngest son John as his inheritance). Richard refused, and conflict continued between them. This refusal is what finally made Henry II bring Queen Eleanor out of prison. He sent her to Aquitaine and demanded that Richard give up his lands to his mother, who would once again rule over those lands.[54]
In 1187, to strengthen his position, Richard allied himself with 22-year-old Philip II, the son of Eleanor's ex-husband Louis VII by Adela of Champagne. Roger of Howden wrote:
The King of England was struck with great astonishment, and wondered what [this alliance] could mean, and, taking precautions for the future, frequently sent messengers into France for the purpose of recalling his son Richard; who, pretending that he was peaceably inclined and ready to come to his father, made his way to Chinon, and, in spite of the person who had the custody thereof, carried off the greater part of his father's treasures, and fortified his castles in Poitou with the same, refusing to go to his father.[55]
Overall, Howden is chiefly concerned with the politics of the relationship between Richard and Philip. Gillingham has addressed theories suggesting that this political relationship was also sexually intimate, which he posits probably stemmed from an official record announcing that, as a symbol of unity between the two countries, the kings of England and France had slept overnight in the same bed. Gillingham has characterized this as "an accepted political act, nothing sexual about it;... a bit like a modern-day photo opportunity".[56]
With news arriving of the Battle of Hattin, he took the cross at Tours in the company of other French nobles. In exchange for Philip's help against his father, Richard paid homage to Philip in November 1188. On 4 July 1189, the forces of Richard and Philip defeated Henry's army at Ballans. Henry agreed to name Richard his heir apparent. Two days later Henry died in Chinon, and Richard succeeded him as King of England, Duke of Normandy, and Count of Anjou. Roger of Howden claimed that Henry's corpse bled from the nose in Richard's presence, which was assumed to be a sign that Richard had caused his death.[citation needed]
King and crusader
Coronation and anti-Jewish violence
Richard I was officially invested as Duke of Normandy on 20 July 1189 and crowned king in Westminster Abbey on 3 September 1189.[57] Tradition barred all Jews and women from the investiture, but some Jewish leaders arrived to present gifts for the new king.[58] According to Ralph of Diceto, Richard's courtiers stripped and flogged the Jews, then flung them out of court.[59]
When a rumour spread that Richard had ordered all Jews to be killed, the people of London attacked the Jewish population.
Offended that he was not being obeyed, and aware that the attacks could destabilise his realm on the eve of his departure on crusade, Richard ordered the execution of those responsible for the most heinous murders and persecutions, including rioters who had accidentally burned down Christian homes.[62] He distributed a royal writ demanding that the Jews be left alone. The edict was only loosely enforced, however, and the following March further violence occurred, including a massacre at York.[63]
Crusade plans
Richard had already taken the cross as Count of Poitou in 1187. His father and Philip II had done so at Gisors on 21 January 1188 after receiving news of the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin. After Richard became king, he and Philip agreed to go on the Third Crusade, since each feared that during his absence the other might usurp his territories.[64]
Richard swore an oath to renounce his past wickedness in order to show himself worthy to take the cross. He started to raise and equip a new crusader army. He spent most of his father's treasury (filled with money raised by the
Richard made some final arrangements on the continent.
Occupation of Sicily
In September 1190 Richard and Philip arrived in Sicily.[69] After the death of King William II of Sicily in 1189 his cousin Tancred had seized power, although the legal heir was William's aunt Constance, wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor. Tancred had imprisoned William's widow, Queen Joan, who was Richard's sister, and did not give her the money she had inherited in William's will. When Richard arrived he demanded that his sister be released and given her inheritance; she was freed on 28 September, but without the inheritance.[70] The presence of foreign troops also caused unrest: in October, the people of Messina revolted, demanding that the foreigners leave.[71] Richard attacked Messina, capturing it on 4 October 1190.[71] After looting and burning the city Richard established his base there, but this created tension between Richard and Philip. He remained there until Tancred finally agreed to sign a treaty on 4 March 1191. The treaty was signed by Richard, Philip, and Tancred.[72] Its main terms were:
- Joan was to receive 20,000 ounces (570 kg) of gold as compensation for her inheritance, which Tancred kept.
- Richard officially proclaimed his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, son of Geoffrey, as his heir, and Tancred promised to marry one of his daughters to Arthur when he came of age, giving a further 20,000 ounces (570 kg) of gold that would be returned by Richard if Arthur did not marry Tancred's daughter.
The two kings stayed in Sicily for a while, but this resulted in increasing tensions between them and their men, with Philip plotting with Tancred against Richard.[73] The two kings eventually met to clear the air and reached an agreement, including the end of Richard's betrothal to Philip's sister Alys.[74] In 1190 King Richard, before leaving for the Holy Land for the crusade, met Joachim of Fiore, who spoke to him of a prophecy contained in the Book of Revelation.
Conquest of Cyprus
In April 1191, Richard left Messina for Acre with an army of 17,000 men,[75] but a storm dispersed his large fleet.[76] After some searching, it was discovered that the ship carrying his sister Joan and his new fiancée, Berengaria of Navarre, was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus, along with the wrecks of several other vessels, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's ruler, Isaac Komnenos.[77]
On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of
The local magnates abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the crusade, and offering
The rapid conquest of the island by Richard was of strategic importance. The island occupies a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea.[81] Cyprus remained a Christian stronghold until the Ottoman invasion in 1570.[82] Richard's exploit was well publicised and contributed to his reputation, and he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island.[82] Richard left Cyprus for Acre on 5 June with his allies.[82]
Marriage
Before leaving Cyprus on crusade, Richard married Berengaria, the first-born daughter of King Sancho VI of Navarre. Richard had first grown close to her at a tournament held in her native Navarre.[83] The wedding was held in Lemesos on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St George and was attended by Richard's sister Joan, whom he had brought from Sicily. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendour, many feasts and entertainments, and public parades and celebrations followed, commemorating the event. When Richard married Berengaria he was still officially betrothed to Alys, and he pushed for the match in order to obtain the Kingdom of Navarre as a fief, as Aquitaine had been for his father. Further, Eleanor championed the match, as Navarre bordered Aquitaine, thereby securing the southern border of her ancestral lands. Richard took his new wife on crusade with him briefly, though they returned separately. Berengaria had almost as much difficulty in making the journey home as her husband did, and she did not see England until after his death. After his release from German captivity, Richard showed some regret for his earlier conduct, but he was not reunited with his wife.[84] The marriage remained childless.[citation needed]
In the Holy Land
Richard landed at Acre on 8 June 1191.
Richard and his forces aided in the capture of Acre, despite Richard's serious illness. At one point, while sick from arnaldia, a disease similar to
Richard had kept 2,700 Muslim prisoners as hostages against Saladin fulfilling all the terms of the surrender of the lands around Acre.
An election forced Richard to accept Conrad of Montferrat as King of Jerusalem, and he sold Cyprus to his defeated protégé, Guy. Only days later, on 28 April 1192, Conrad was stabbed to death by the
The crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and, in June 1192, it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat once again, this time because of dissension amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of
A period of minor skirmishes with Saladin's forces commenced, punctuated by another defeat in the field for the Ayyubid army at the Battle of Jaffa. Baha' al-Din, a contemporary Muslim soldier and biographer of Saladin, recorded a tribute to Richard's martial prowess at this battle: "I have been assured ... that on that day the king of England, lance in hand, rode along the whole length of our army from right to left, and not one of our soldiers left the ranks to attack him. The Sultan was wroth thereat and left the battlefield in anger...".[99] Both sides realised that their respective positions were growing untenable. Richard knew that both Philip and his own brother John were starting to plot against him, and the morale of Saladin's army had been badly eroded by repeated defeats. However, Saladin insisted on the razing of Ascalon's fortifications, which Richard's men had rebuilt, and a few other points. Richard made one last attempt to strengthen his bargaining position by attempting to invade Egypt – Saladin's chief supply-base – but failed. In the end, time ran out for Richard. He realised that his return could be postponed no longer, since both Philip and John were taking advantage of his absence. He and Saladin finally came to a settlement on 2 September 1192. The terms provided for the destruction of Ascalon's fortifications, allowed Christian pilgrims and merchants access to Jerusalem, and initiated a three-year truce.[100] Richard, being ill with arnaldia, left for England on 9 October 1192.[101]
Life after the Third Crusade
Captivity, ransom and return
Bad weather forced Richard's ship to put in at Corfu, in the lands of Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos, who objected to Richard's annexation of Cyprus, formerly Byzantine territory. Disguised as a Knight Templar, Richard sailed from Corfu with four attendants, but his ship was wrecked near Aquileia, forcing Richard and his party into taking a dangerous land route through central Europe. On his way to the territory of his brother-in-law Henry the Lion, Richard was captured shortly before Christmas 1192 near Vienna by Leopold of Austria, who accused Richard of arranging the murder of his cousin Conrad of Montferrat. Moreover, Richard had personally offended Leopold by casting down his standard from the walls of Acre.[92]
Leopold kept Richard prisoner at Dürnstein Castle under the care of Leopold's ministerialis Hadmar of Kuenring.[102] This mishap was soon known in England, but the regents were for some weeks uncertain of his whereabouts. While in prison, Richard wrote the musical piece Ja nus hons pris or Ja nuls om pres ("No man who is imprisoned"), which is addressed to his half-sister Marie. He wrote the song, in French and Occitan versions, to express his feelings of abandonment by his people and his sister. The detention of a crusader was contrary to public law,[103][104] and on these grounds Pope Celestine III excommunicated Leopold.[105]
On 28 March 1193, Richard was brought to Speyer and handed over to Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, who imprisoned him in Trifels Castle. The Emperor was aggrieved by the support the Plantagenets had given to the family of Henry the Lion and by Richard's recognition of Tancred in Sicily.[103] Henry VI needed money to raise an army and assert his rights over southern Italy and continued to hold Richard for ransom. Nevertheless, to Richard's irritation, Pope Celestine hesitated to excommunicate Henry VI, as he had Duke Leopold, for the continued wrongful imprisonment of Richard. He famously refused to show deference to the Emperor and declared to him, "I am born of a rank which recognises no superior but God".[106] The King was at first shown a certain measure of respect, but later, at the prompting of Philip of Dreux, Bishop of Beauvais and Philip of France's cousin, the conditions of Richard's captivity worsened, and he was kept in chains, "so heavy," Richard declared, "that a horse or ass would have struggled to move under them."[107]
The Emperor demanded that 150,000 marks (100,000 pounds of silver) be delivered to him before he would release the King, the same amount raised by the Saladin tithe only a few years earlier,[108] and two to three times the annual income of the English Crown under Richard. Meanwhile, Richard's mother worked tirelessly to raise the ransom for her son's release. Leopold also requested Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany, niece of Richard, marry his heir Frederick. Both clergy and laymen were taxed for a quarter of the value of their property, the gold and silver treasures of the churches were confiscated, and money was raised from the scutage and the carucage taxes. At the same time, Richard's brother John and King Philip of France offered 80,000 marks for Henry VI to hold Richard prisoner until Michaelmas 1194. Henry turned down the offer. The money to release the King was transferred to Germany by the Emperor's ambassadors, but "at the king's peril" (had it been lost along the way, Richard would have been held responsible), and finally, on 4 February 1194 Richard was released. Philip sent a message to John: "Look to yourself; the devil is loose".[109] Furthermore, upon the sudden death of Leopold, under the pressure of the Pope, the new duke Frederick was forced to abandon his marriage plan with Eleanor of Brittany.[110][111]
War against Philip of France
In Richard's absence, his brother John revolted with the aid of Philip; amongst Philip's conquests in the period of Richard's imprisonment was Normandy.[112] Richard forgave John when they met again and named him as his heir in place of their nephew Arthur. At Winchester, on 11 March 1194, Richard was crowned a second time to nullify the shame of his captivity.[113]
Richard began his reconquest of Normandy. The fall of the
Royal expenditure on castles declined from the levels spent under Henry II, attributed to a concentration of resources on Richard's war with the king of France.[120] However, the work at Château Gaillard was some of the most expensive of its time and cost an estimated £15,000 to £20,000 between 1196 and 1198.[121] This was more than double Richard's spending on castles in England, an estimated £7,000.[122] Unprecedented in its speed of construction, the castle was mostly complete in two years, when most construction on such a scale would have taken the better part of a decade.[121] According to William of Newburgh, in May 1198 Richard and the labourers working on the castle were drenched in a "rain of blood". While some of his advisers thought the rain was an evil omen, Richard was undeterred.[123] As no master-mason is mentioned in the otherwise detailed records of the castle's construction, military historian Richard Allen Brown has suggested that Richard himself was the overall architect; this is supported by the interest Richard showed in the work through his frequent presence.[124] In his final years, the castle became Richard's favourite residence, and writs and charters were written at Château Gaillard bearing "apud Bellum Castrum de Rupe" (at the Fair Castle of the Rock).[125]
Château Gaillard was ahead of its time, featuring innovations that would be adopted in castle architecture nearly a century later. Allen Brown described Château Gaillard as "one of the finest castles in Europe",[125] and military historian Sir Charles Oman wrote that it was considered "the masterpiece of its time. The reputation of its builder, Cœur de Lion, as a great military engineer might stand firm on this single structure. He was no mere copyist of the models he had seen in the East, but introduced many original details of his own invention into the stronghold".[126]
Determined to resist Philip's designs on contested Angevin lands such as the Vexin and Berry, Richard poured all his military expertise and vast resources into the war on the French King. He organised an alliance against Philip, including
Partly as a result of these and other intrigues, Richard won several victories over Philip. At
Death
In March 1199, Richard was in Limousin suppressing a revolt by Viscount Aimar V of Limoges. Although it was Lent, he "devastated the Viscount's land with fire and sword".[128] He besieged the tiny, virtually unarmed castle of Châlus-Chabrol. Some chroniclers claimed that this was because a local peasant had uncovered a treasure trove of Roman gold.[129]
On 26 March 1199, Richard was hit in the shoulder by a crossbow bolt, and the wound turned
Richard died on 6 April 1199 in the arms of his mother, and thus "ended his earthly day."
Richard's heart was buried at Rouen in Normandy, his entrails in
Richard produced no legitimate heirs and acknowledged only one illegitimate son, Philip of Cognac. He was succeeded by his brother John as king.[140] His French territories, with the exception of Rouen, initially rejected John as a successor, preferring his nephew Arthur.[141] The lack of any direct heirs from Richard was the first step in the dissolution of the Angevin Empire.[140]
Character
Contemporaries considered Richard as both a king and a knight famed for personal martial prowess; this was, apparently, the first such instance of this combination.[142] He was known as a valiant, competent military leader and individual fighter who was courageous and generous. At the same time, he was considered prone to the sins of lust, pride, greed and, above all, excessive cruelty. Ralph of Coggeshall, summarising Richard's career, deplores that the King was one of "the immense cohort of sinners".[143] He was criticised by clergy chroniclers for having taxed the clergy both for the Crusade and for his ransom, whereas the church and the clergy were usually exempt from taxes.[144]
Richard was a patron and a protector of the trouvères and troubadours of his entourage; he was also a poet himself.[145][146] He was interested in writing and music, and two poems are attributed to him. The first one is a sirventes in Old French, Dalfin je us voill desrenier, and the second one is a lament that he wrote during his imprisonment at Dürnstein Castle, Ja nus hons pris, with a version in Old Occitan and a version in Old French.[146][147]
Speculation regarding sexuality
In the historiography of the second half of the 20th century, much interest was shown in Richard's sexuality, in particular whether there was evidence of homosexuality. The topic had not been raised by
Legacy
Heraldry
The second
Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant (now statant-guardant).[159] The coat of three lions continues to represent England on several coins of the pound sterling, forms the basis of several emblems of English national sports teams (such as the England national football team, and the team's "Three Lions" anthem),[160] and endures as one of the most recognisable national symbols of England.[161]
Medieval folklore
Around the middle of the 13th century, various legends developed that, after Richard's capture, his minstrel
At some time around the 16th century, tales of Robin Hood started to mention him as a contemporary and supporter of King Richard the Lionheart, Robin being driven to outlawry, during the misrule of Richard's evil brother John, while Richard was away at the Third Crusade.[165]
Modern reception
Richard's reputation over the years has "fluctuated wildly", according to historian John Gillingham.[166] Contemporary sources emphasize his stern and unforgiving nature and his excessive cruelty, but his image had already been romanticized a few decades after his death, with the new views on Richard depicting him as generous-hearted preux chevalier.[167]
Richard left an indelible imprint in large part because of his military exploits, and his popular image tended to be dominated by the positive qualities of chivalry and military competence.[142] This is reflected in Steven Runciman's final verdict: "he was a bad son, a bad husband, and a bad king, but a gallant and splendid soldier" ("History of the Crusades" Vol. III).
Victorian England was divided on Richard: many admired him as a crusader and man of God, erecting an
He was a bad king: his great exploits, his military skill, his splendour and extravagance, his poetical tastes, his adventurous spirit, do not serve to cloak his entire want of sympathy, or even consideration, for his people. He was no Englishman, but it does not follow that he gave to Normandy, Anjou, or Aquitaine the love or care that he denied to his kingdom. His ambition was that of a mere warrior: he would fight for anything whatever, but he would sell everything that was worth fighting for. The glory that he sought was that of victory rather than conquest.[168]
In
Family tree
: Bold borders indicate legitimate children of English monarchs
Baldwin II King of Jerusalem | Fulk IV Count of Anjou | Bertrade of Montfort | Philip I King of France | William the Conqueror King of England r. 1066–1087 | Saint Margaret of Scotland | Malcolm III King of Scotland | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Melisende Queen of Jerusalem | Fulk V King of Jerusalem | Eremburga of Maine | Robert Curthose | William II King of England r. 1087–1100 | Adela of Normandy | Henry I King of England r. 1100–1135 | Matilda of Scotland | Duncan II King of Scotland | Edgar King of Scotland | Alexander I King of Scotland | David I King of Scotland | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sibylla of Anjou | William Clito | Stephen King of England r. 1135–1154 | Geoffrey Plantagenet Count of Anjou | Empress Matilda | William Adelin | Matilda of Anjou | Henry of Scotland | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Margaret I | Philip of Alsace Count of Flanders | Louis VII King of France | Eleanor of Aquitaine | Henry II King of England r. 1154–1189 | Geoffrey Count of Nantes | William FitzEmpress | Malcolm IV King of Scotland | William the Lion King of Scotland | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Baldwin I Latin Emperor | Isabella of Hainault | Philip II King of France | Henry the Young King | Matilda Duchess of Saxony | Richard I King of England r. 1189–1199 | Geoffrey II Duke of Brittany | Eleanor | Alfonso VIII King of Castile | Joan | William II King of Sicily | John King of England r. 1199–1216 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Louis VIII King of France | Otto IV Holy Roman Emperor | Arthur I Duke of Brittany | Blanche of Castile Queen of France | Henry III King of England r. 1216–1272 | Richard of Cornwall King of the Romans | Joan Queen of Scotland | Alexander II King of Scotland | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
See also
Explanatory notes
- ^ Historians are divided in their use of the terms "Plantagenet" and "Angevin" in regards to Henry II and his sons. Some class Henry II to be the first Plantagenet king of England; others refer to Henry, Richard and John as the Angevin dynasty, and consider Henry III to be the first Plantagenet ruler.
- ^ Although there are numerous variations of the story's details, it is not disputed that Richard did pardon the person who shot the bolt.[133]
References
Citations
- ISBN 978-0-8599-1843-5.
- ISBN 9781108832960p. 61
- ^ a b Turner & Heiser 2000, p. 71.
- ^ The troubadour Bertran de Born also called him Richard Oc-e-Non (Occitan for Yes and No), possibly from a reputation for terseness.
- ISBN 978-0-8129-0802-2.
- ^ Addison 1842, pp. 141–149.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 20.
- ^ Harvey 1948, pp. 62–64.
- ^ Turner & Heiser 2000[page needed]
- ^ Harvey 1948, p. 58.
- ^ Flori 1999, p. 1.
- ^ a b Gillingham 2002, p. 24.
- ^ a b Flori 1999, p. ix.
- ^ Flori 1999, p. 2.
- ^ Flori 1999, p. 28.
- ISBN 978-0-3001-8725-0.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 28, 32
- ^ Flori 1999, p. 10.
- ^ Leese 1996, p. 57
- ^ Prestwich & Prestwich 2004, p. 76
- ^ Stafford, Nelson & Martindale 2001, pp. 168–169
- ^ Brewer 2000, p. 41
- ISBN 978-0-7126-9417-9.
- ^ Flori 1999, pp. 23–25.
- ^ Flori 1999, pp. 26–27
- ^ Flori 1999, pp. 25, 28
- ^ Flori 1999, pp. 27–28
- ^ Flori 1999, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 40
- ^ Turner & Heiser 2000, p. 57
- ^ Flori 1999, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Flori 1999, p. 32.
- ^ Flori 1999, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 41.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 49–50.
- ^ a b Gillingham 2002, p. 48.
- ^ a b Flori 1999, p. 33.
- ^ a b Flori 1999, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 49.
- ^ a b Flori 1999, pp. 33–34.
- ^ a b c d Flori 1999, p. 35.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 50–51.
- ^ a b Gillingham 2002, p. 50.
- ^ Flori 1999, p. 36.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 52.
- ^ a b Flori 1999, p. 41
- ^ Flori 1999, pp. 41–42.
- ^ "Richard the Lionheart Biography". www.medieval-life-and-times.info. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
- ^ Giraldi Cambrensis topographia Hibernica, dist. III, cap. L; ed. James F. Dimock in: Rolles Series (RS), Band 21, 5, London 1867, S. 196.
- ^ L'Estoire de la Guerre Sainte, v. 2310, ed. G. Paris in: Collection de documents inédits sur l'histoire de France, vol. 11, Paris 1897, col. 62.
- ISBN 978-0-2978-5749-5.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-1-4042-0162-0.
- ^ "His reliance upon military force proved counterproductive. The more ruthless his punitive expeditions and the more rapacious his mercenaries' plundering, the more hostility he aroused. Even English chroniclers commented on the hatred aroused among Richard's Aquitanian subjects by his excessive cruelty"Turner & Heiser 2000, p. 264
- ^ Jones 2014, p. 94
- ^ Roger of Hoveden 1853, p. 64
- ^ Martin 2008.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 107
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 94–95.
- ^ a b c Flori 1999f, p. 95
- ^ Graetz & Bloch 1902[page needed]
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 465–466 As cited by Flori, the chronicler Giraud le Cambrien reports that Richard was fond of telling a tale according to which he was a descendant of a countess of Anjou who was, in fact, the fairy Melusine, concluding that his family "came from the devil and would return to the devil".
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 319–320.
- ^ Graetz & Bloch 1902, pp. 409–416
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 100.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 97–101.
- ^ a b Flori 1999f, p. 101
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 99.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 118.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 111.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 114.
- ^ a b Flori 1999f, p. 116
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 117.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 124–126.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 127–128.
- ^ Phillips, Jonathan (2014). The Crusades, 1095–1204 (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 170.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 131.
- ^ a b c Flori 1999f, p. 132
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 133–134.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 134.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 134–136.
- ^ a b Flori 1999f, p. 137
- ^ a b c Flori 1999f, p. 138
- ASIN B00P179WN8.
- ^ Richard I. by Jacob Abbot, New York and London Harper & Brothers 1902
- ^ According to Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad on the 7th, but the Itinerarium and Gesta mention the 8th as the date of his arrival (L. Landon, The itinerary of King Richard I, with studies on certain matters of interest connected with his reign, London, 1935, p. 50.).
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 148.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 148–149.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 149.
- ISBN 978-0-3002-3535-7. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-8498-3770-5. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
- ^ Richard Coer de Lyon II vv. 6027–6028: Kyng R. let breke his baner, / And kest it into þe reuer.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-472-02418-6.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 154.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 167–171.
- ^ Gillingham 1979, pp. 198–200.
- ISBN 978-0-6740-5559-9"two members of the Assassin Sect, disguised as monks"
- ^ Wolff, Robert L., and Hazard, H. W. (1977). A History of the Crusades: Volume Two, The Later Crusades 1187–1311, The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 80.
- ^ Gillingham 1979, pp. 209–212.
- ^ Baha' al-Din Yusuf Ibn Shaddad (also rendered Beha al-Din and Beha Ed-Din), trans. C.W. Wilson (1897) Saladin Or What Befell Sultan Yusuf, Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, London.[1], p. 376
- ^ Richard I. by Jacob Abbott, New York and London Harper & Brothers 1902
- ISBN 978-0-6740-5559-9
- ^ Arnold 1999, p. 128
- ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 295.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 188–189.
- ISBN 978-0-7222-2160-0.
- ^ Longford 1989, p. 85.
- ^ William of Newburgh, Historia, ii. 493–494, cited in John Gillingham, "The Kidnapped King: Richard I in Germany, 1192–1194," German Historical Institute London Bulletin, 2008. Richard would have his revenge on Dreux when the Bishop was captured, clad in a mailcoat and fully armed, by Richard's men in 1197; the king promptly clapped him into prison, from whence he was released only in 1200, a year after Richard's death.
- ^ Madden 2005, p. 96
- ^ Purser 2004, p. 161.
- ^ Costain, Thomas B. The Magnificent Century: The Pageant of England. Garden City: Doubleday, 1951 p.4–7
- ^ The Angevin Empire
- ^ Gillingham 2004.
- ^ Barrow 1967, p. 184.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 303–305.
- ^ a b c Gillingham 2002, p. 301.
- ^ Turner 1997, p. 10.
- ^ Packard 1922, p. 20.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 302–304
- ^ Brown 2004, p. 112.
- ^ Brown 1976, pp. 355–356.
- ^ a b McNeill 1992, p. 42.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 304.
- ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 303.
- ^ Brown 2004, p. 113.
- ^ a b Brown 1976, p. 62.
- ^ Oman 1991, p. 33.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-5200-4981-9.
- ^ Ralph_of_Coggeshall, p. 94.
- ^ "King Richard I of England Versus King Philip II Augustus". Historynet.com. 23 August 2006. Archived from the original on 12 March 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
- ^ Gillingham 2004.
- ^ Gillingham 1989, p. 16.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 233–254.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 234
- ASIN B004OEIDOS.
- ASIN B00328ZUOS.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 238.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 235.
- PMID 23448897.
- ^ Gillingham 1979, p. 8. Roger of Wendover (Flores historiarum, p. 234) ascribes Sandford's vision to the day before Palm Sunday, 3 April 1232.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-1951-2319-7.[page needed]
- ^ Jones 2014, pp. 150–152
- ^ a b Flori 1999f, pp. 484–485
- ^ Among the sins for which the King of England was criticised, alongside lust, those of pride, greed, and cruelty loom large. Ralph of Coggeshall, describing his death in 1199, summarises in a few lines Richard's career and the vain hopes raised by his accession to the throne. Alas, he belonged to 'the immense cohort of sinners'" (Flori 1999, p. 335).
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 322.
- ^ Gillingham 2004
- ^ a b "Richard I the Lionheart". Dictionary of music (in French). Larousse. 2005.
- ^ Gillingham 2002
- ^ Harvey, pp. 33–34. This question was mentioned, however, in Richard, A., Histoire des comtes de Poitout, 778–1204, vol. I–II, Paris, 1903, t. II, p. 130, cited in Flori 1999f, p. 448 (French).
- ^ Summarised in McLynn, pp. 92–93. Roger of Howden tells of a hermit who warned, "Be thou mindful of the destruction of Sodom, and abstain from what is unlawful", and Richard thus "receiving absolution, took back his wife, whom for a long time he had not known, and putting away all illicit intercourse, he remained constant to his wife and the two become one flesh". Roger of Hoveden, The Annals, trans. Henry T. Riley, 2. Vols. (London: H.G. Bohn, 1853; repr. New York: AMS Press, 1968)
- ^ McLynn, p. 93; see also Gillingham 1994, pp. 119–139.
- ISBN 978-0-5218-3968-6.
- ^ As cited in Flori 1999f, p. 448 (French). See for example Brundage, Richard Lion Heart, New York, 1974, pp. 38, 88, 202, 212, 257; Runciman, S., A History of the Crusades, Cambridge, 1951–194, t. III, pp. 41ff.; and Boswell, J., Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality, Chicago, 1980, pp. 231ff.
- ^ Gillingham 1994, pp. 119–139.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 456–462.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 463.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 464.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 454–456 (French). Contemporary accounts refer to various signs of friendship between the two when Richard was at Philip's court in 1187 during his rebellion against his father Henry II, including sleeping in the same bed. But, according to Flori and Gillingham, such signs of friendship were part of the customs of the time, indicating trust and confidence, and cannot be interpreted as proof of the homosexuality of either man.
- ISBN 978-0810928305.
- ^ Woodward and Burnett, Woodward's: A Treatise on Heraldry, British and foreign, With English and French Glossaries, p. 37. Ailes, Adrian (1982). The Origins of The Royal Arms of England. Reading: Graduate Center for Medieval Studies, University of Reading. pp. 52–63. Charles Boutell, A. C. Fox-Davies, ed., The Handbook to English Heraldry, 11th ed. (1914).
- ^ Ingle, Sean (18 July 2002). "Why do England have three lions on their shirts?". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ Boutell, Charles, 1859. The Art Journal London. p. 353.
- ^ Flori 1999f, pp. 191–192.
- ^ Flori 1999f, p. 192.
- ^ Fauchet, Claude (1581). Recueil de l'origine de la langue et poesie françoise. Paris: Mamert Patisson. pp. 130–131.
- ISBN 978-0-5002-5081-5.
- ^ a b John Gillingham, Kings and Queens of Britain: Richard I; Cannon & Hargreaves 2004, [page needed]
- ^ "Matthew's small sketch of a crossbow above Richard's inverted shield was probably intended to draw attention to the king's magnanimous forgiveness of the man who had caused his death, a true story first told by Roger of Howden, but with a different thrust. It was originally meant to illustrate Richard's stern, unforgiving character, since he only pardoned Peter Basil when he was sure he was going to die; but the Chronica Majora adopted a later popular conception of the generous hearted preux chevalier, transforming history into romance". Suzanne Lewis, The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora, California studies in the history of art, vol. 21, University of California Press, 1987, p. 180.
- ISBN 978-1-5847-7148-7.
- ^ Curry, Andrew (8 April 2002). "The First Holy War". U.S. News & World Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. News & World Report, L.P.
- ISBN 978-1-4000-6580-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8572-8518-8.
Works cited
- Addison, Charles (1842), The History of the Knights Templars, the Temple Church, and the Temple, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
- Arnold, Benjamin (1999) [1985], German Knighthood 1050–1300, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-1982-1960-6.
- ISBN 978-7-2400-0898-0.
- Brown, Richard Allen (1976) [1954], Allen Brown's English Castles, Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, ISBN 978-1-8438-3069-6.
- —— (2004). Die Normannen (in German). Albatros Im Patmos Verlag. ISBN 978-3-4919-6122-7.
- Brewer, Clifford (2000), The Death of Kings, London: Abson Books, ISBN 978-0-9029-2099-6.
- Cannon, John; Hargreaves, Anne (2004) [2001]. Kings and Queens of Britain. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1986-0956-6.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-2047-0.
- —— (1999f), Richard Coeur de Lion: le roi-chevalier (in French), Paris: Biographie Payot, ISBN 978-2-2288-9272-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8129-0802-2.
- —— (1989), Richard the Lionheart, Butler and Tanner Ltd, ISBN 978-0-2977-9606-0.
- —— (1994), Richard Coeur De Lion: Kingship, Chivalry And War in the Twelfth Century, London: Hambledon & London, ISBN 978-1-8528-5084-5.
- —— (2002) [1999], Richard I, London: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-3000-9404-6.
- —— (2004). "Richard I (1157–1199), king of England". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/23498. Retrieved 22 December 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- Graetz, Heinrich Bella Löwy; Bloch, Philipp (1902), History of the Jews, vol. 3, Jewish Publication Society of America, ISBN 978-1-5398-8573-3.
- Harvey, John (1948), The Plantagenets, Fontana/Collins, ISBN 978-0-0063-2949-7.
- ISBN 978-0-1431-2492-4.
- Leese, Thelma Anna (1996), Royal: Issue of the Kings and Queens of Medieval England, 1066–1399, Heritage Books Inc, ISBN 978-0-7884-0525-9.
- ISBN 978-0-1921-4153-8.
- ISBN 978-0-4720-3127-6.
- Martin, Nicole (18 March 2008). "Richard I slept with French king 'but not gay'". The Daily Telegraph. p. 11. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. See also "Bed-heads of state". The Daily Telegraph. 18 March 2008. p. 25. Archived from the original on 5 June 2008.
- McNeill, Tom (1992), English Heritage Book of Castles, London: English Heritage and B. T. Batsford, ISBN 978-0-7134-7025-3.
- ISBN 978-1-8536-7105-0.
- Packard, Sydney (1922), "King John and the Norman Church", The Harvard Theological Review, 15 (1): 15–40, S2CID 160036290
- Prestwich, J.O.; ISBN 978-1-8438-3098-6.
- Purser, Toby (2004), Medieval England 1042–1228 (illustrated ed.), Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-4353-2760-6
- Ralph of Coggeshall. Chronicon Anglicanum (in Latin). Essex, England.
- Roger of Hoveden (1853), The annals of Roger de Hoveden: comprising The history of England and of other countries of Europe from A.D. 732 to A.D. 1201, vol. 2, translated by Riley, Henry T., London: H.G. Bohn.
- Stafford, Pauline; Nelson, Janet L.; Martindale, Jane (2001). Law, Laity and Solidarities. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5836-3.
- Turner, Ralph (1997). "Richard Lionheart and English Episcopal Elections". Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 29 (1): 1–13. JSTOR 4051592.
- ——; Heiser, Richard R (2000), The Reign of Richard Lionheart, Ruler of the Angevin empire, 1189–1199, Harlow: Longman, ISBN 978-0-5822-5659-0.
Further reading
- Ambroise (2003). The History of the Holy War. Translated by Ailes, Marianne. Boydell Press.
- Ralph of Diceto (1876). Stubbs, William (ed.). Radulfi de Diceto Decani Lundoniensis Opera Historica (in Italian). London.
- Berg, Dieter (2007). Richard Löwenherz (in German). Darmstadt.
- Edbury, Peter W. (1996). The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation. Ashgate. ISBN 1-8401-4676-1.
- Gabrieli, Francesco, ed. (1969). Arab Historians of the Crusades. University of California Press. ISBN 0-5200-5224-2.
- ISBN 978-2-2901-1916-7
- Nelson, Janet L., ed. (1992). Richard Cœur de Lion in History and Myth. ISBN 0-9513-0856-4.
- Nicholson, Helen J., ed. (1997). The Chronicle of the Third Crusade: The Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi. Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-0581-7.
- —— (1867), Stubbs, William (ed.), Gesta Regis Henrici II & Gesta Regis Ricardi Benedicti Abbatis (in Latin), London
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Roger of Hoveden (1868–1871), Stubbs, William (ed.), Chronica Magistri Rogeri de Houedene (in Latin), London
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Runciman, Steven (1951–1954). A History of the Crusades. Vol. 2–3.
- Stubbs, William, ed. (1864). Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi (in Latin). London.
- Medieval Sourcebook: Guillame de Tyr (William of Tyre): Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum (History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea).
- Williams, Patrick A (1970). "The Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat: Another Suspect?". Traditio. XXVI.
External links
- Richard I at the official website of the British monarchy
- Richard I at BBC History
- Works by or about Richard I of England at Internet Archive
- Portraits of King Richard I at the National Portrait Gallery, London