Monarchy of Canada
King of Canada | |
---|---|
Roi du Canada | |
Federal | |
Arms of the King of Canada | |
Incumbent | |
Charles III since 8 September 2022 | |
Details | |
Style | His Majesty |
Heir apparent | William, Prince of Wales[1] |
Residences | Rideau Hall, Ottawa[citation needed] La Citadelle, Quebec City[citation needed] |
Website | canada.ca/monarchy-crown |
The monarchy of Canada is Canada's
Although the person of the sovereign is
All executive authority is vested in the sovereign, so the monarch's consent is necessary for
Canada has been described as "one of the oldest continuing monarchies in the world" of today.
Though not part of the Canadian monarchy, either past or present, Canada has an even older tradition of hereditary chieftainship in some First Nations, which has been likened to non-sovereign monarchy and today exists in parallel with the Canadian Crown and individual band governments. All three entities are components of the nation-to-nation relationship between the Crown and First Nations in upholding treaty rights and obligations developed over the centuries.
International and domestic aspects
As the person who is the Canadian sovereign is
The emergence of this arrangement paralleled the fruition of
This division is illustrated in a number of ways: The sovereign, for example, holds
The sovereign similarly only draws from Canadian funds for support in the performance of his duties when in Canada or acting as King of Canada abroad; Canadians do not pay any money to the King or any other member of the royal family, either towards personal income or to support royal residences outside of Canada.[111][112]
There are five aspects to the monarchy of Canada: constitutional (such as the use of the
Succession and regency
As in the other
Demise of the Crown and accession
Upon the death of the monarch, there is a demise (transfer) of the Crown: the late sovereign's heir immediately and automatically succeeds;[116] hence arises the phrase, "the King is dead. Long live the King".[117][118] there has been no interregnum between the death of one king or queen and the accession of the next since at least the reign of Edward I,[119] 225 years before John Cabot landed on the east coast of what is today Canada. No confirmation or further ceremony is necessary; the federal Cabinet and civil service will, though, follow the Manual of Official Procedure of the Government of Canada in carrying out various formalities around the late monarch's death and the new monarch's assumption of the throne.[120]
It has been customary for the accession to be publicly proclaimed by the governor general-in-council, who meet at Rideau Hall immediately upon the previous monarch's death.[120] Since Edward VIII took the throne in 1936, it has been "constitutionally inappropriate" for Canada's accession proclamations to be approved by a British order-in-council,[82] as the monarch has, since then, assumed the Canadian throne according to Canadian law. For the accession of Charles III, the first since the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 1989, the Chief Herald read the royal proclamation aloud. If Parliament is in session, the Prime Minister will announce the demise of the Crown there and move for a joint address of sympathy and loyalty to the new monarch.[120]
An appropriate period of mourning also follows, during which portraits of the recently deceased monarch are draped with black fabric and staff at government houses wear customary black armbands. The Manual of Official Procedure of the Government of Canada states the prime minister is responsible for convening Parliament, tabling a resolution of loyalty and condolence from Parliament to the new monarch, and arranging for the motion to be seconded by the leader of the official opposition.[114][121] The prime minister will then move to adjourn Parliament.[114][121] The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation keeps a regularly updated plan for a "broadcast of national importance", announcing the demise of a sovereign and covering the aftermath, during which all regular programming and advertising is cancelled and on-call commentators contribute to a 24-hour news mode.[114] As the late sovereign is typically buried in the UK, the federal and provincial governments will organize commemoration ceremonies, involving religious services, eulogies, and military parades. Such ceremonies may also be held for other recently deceased members of the royal family. The day of the sovereign's funeral is likely to be a public holiday.[114]
The new monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual but one not necessary for a sovereign to reign.[n 8] Under the federal Interpretation Act,[120] officials who hold a federal office under the Crown are not affected by the death of the monarch, nor are they required to take the Oath of Allegiance again.[122] In some provinces, though, those holding Crown offices must swear the Oath to the new sovereign.[123] All references in federal legislation to previous monarchs, whether in the masculine (e.g. his majesty) or feminine (e.g. the queen), continue to mean the reigning sovereign of Canada, regardless of his or her gender.[124] This is because, in common law, the Crown never dies. After an individual accedes to the throne, he or she usually continues to reign until death.[n 9]
Legal aspects of succession
The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the rules of succession to their respective crowns requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes, such as the
The
In a meeting of the Special Joint Committee on the Constitution during the process of
Leslie Zines claimed in the 1991 publication, Constitutional Change in the Commonwealth, that, though the succession to Canada's throne was outlined by common law and the Act of Settlement, 1701, these were not part of the Canadian constitution, which "does not contain rules for succession to the throne."[139] Richard Toporoski, writing three years later for the Monarchist League of Canada, stated, "there is no existing provision in our law, other than the Act of Settlement, 1701, that provides that the king or queen of Canada shall be the same person as the king or queen of the United Kingdom. If the British law were to be changed and we did not change our law [...] the person provided for in the new law would become king or queen in at least some realms of the Commonwealth; Canada would continue on with the person who would have become monarch under the previous law."[140]
Canada, with the other Commonwealth realms, committed to the 2011 Perth Agreement, which proposed changes to the rules governing succession to remove male preference and removal of disqualification arising from marriage to a Roman Catholic. As a result of the Perth Agreement, the Canadian Parliament passed the Succession to the Throne Act, 2013, which gave the country's assent to the Succession to the Crown Bill, at that time proceeding in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. In dismissing a challenge to the law on the basis that a change to the succession in Canada would require unanimous consent of all provinces under section 41(a) of the Constitution Act, 1982, Quebec Superior Court Justice Claude Bouchard ruled that Canada "did not have to change its laws nor its constitution for the British royal succession rules to be amended and effective" and constitutional convention committed Canada to having a line of succession symmetrical to those of other Commonwealth realms.[141][142] The ruling was upheld by the Quebec Court of Appeal.[143] The Supreme Court of Canada declined to hear an appeal in April 2020.[144]
Constitutional scholar Philippe Lagassé argues that, in light of the Succession to the Throne Act, 2013, and court rulings upholding that law, section 41(a) of the Constitution Act, 1982, which requires a constitutional amendment passed with the unanimous consent of the provinces, applies only to the "office of the Queen", but not who holds that office, and that therefore "ending the principle of symmetry with the United Kingdom can be done with the general amending procedure, or even by Parliament alone under section 44 of the Constitution Act, 1982."[144][145]
Certain aspects of the succession rules have been challenged in the courts. For example, under the provisions of the Bill of Rights, 1689, and the Act of Settlement, 1701, Catholics are barred from succeeding to the throne; this prohibition has been upheld twice by Canadian courts, once in 2003 and again in 2014.[152] Legal scholar Christopher Cornell of the SMU Dedman School of Law concluded "that the prohibition on the Canadian Monarch being Catholic, while discriminatory, is perfectly-if not fundamentally-constitutional" and that if the prohibition is "to be changed or removed it will have to be accomplished politically and legislatively through another multilateral agreement similar to the Perth Agreement rather than judicially through the courts."[153]
Regency
Canada has no laws allowing for a
This has led to the question of whether the governor general has the ability to remove themselves and appoint their viceregal successor in the monarch's name. While Lagassé argued that appears to be the case,[145] both the Canadian Manual of Official Procedures, published in 1968, and the Privy Council Office took the opposite opinion.[157][158] Lagassé and Patrick Baud claimed changes could be made to regulations to allow a governor general to appoint the next governor general;[159] Christopher McCreery, however, criticised the theory, arguing it is impractical to suggest that a governor general would remove him or herself on ministerial advice,[160] with the consequence that, if a prolonged regency occurred, it would remove one of the checks and balances in the constitution.[161] The intent expressed whenever the matter of regency came up among Commonwealth realm heads of government was that the relevant parliament (other than the United Kingdom's) would pass a bill if the need for a regency arose and the pertinent governor-general would already be empowered to grant royal assent to it.[162] The governor general appointing their successor is not a power that has been utilized to date.[145]
Foreign visits
The following
Visit to | Date | Monarch of Canada | Received by | Type |
---|---|---|---|---|
France | 26 July 1936 | King Edward VIII | President Albert Lebrun | Official[166] |
United States | 7–11 June 1939 | King George VI | President Franklin D. Roosevelt | State[167][168][169] |
United States | 17 October 1957 | Queen Elizabeth II | President Dwight D. Eisenhower | State[173] |
United States | 26 June 1959 | Official[174][175] | ||
United States | 6 July 1959 | Governor William Stratton | State[178] | |
France | 6 June 1984 | President François Mitterrand | Official[182] | |
France | 1994 | Official[175][181] | ||
France | 6 June 2004 | President Jacques Chirac | Official[183][175] | |
France | 9 April 2007 | Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin | Official[184] | |
United States | 6 July 2010 | Governor David Paterson | Official[169][185] |
Federal and provincial aspects
The origins of
Canada's monarchy was established at Confederation, when its executive government and authority were declared, in section 9 of the Constitution Act, 1867, to continue and be vested in the monarch. Placing such power, along with legislative power, with the tangible, living Queen, rather than the abstract and inanimate Crown, was a deliberate choice by the framers of the constitution.
The Crown is located beyond politics, existing to give authority to and protect the constitution and system of governance.[190] Power, therefore, rests with an institution that "functions to safeguard it on behalf of all its citizens", rather than any singular individual.[200] The sovereign and his representatives typically "act by 'not acting'"[n 14]—holding power, but, not exercising it—both because they are unelected figures and to maintain their neutrality, "deliberately, insistently, and resolutely",[202] in case they have to be an impartial arbiter in a constitutional crisis and ensure that normal democratic discourse can resume.[205] Consequently, the Crown performs two functions:[206] as a unifying symbol and a protector of democratic rights and freedoms,[191] "tightly woven into the fabric of the Canadian constitution."[206]
At the same time, a number of freedoms granted by the constitution to all other Canadians are denied to, or limited for, the monarch and the other senior members of the royal family: freedom of religion, freedom of expression, freedom to travel, freedom to choose a career, freedom to marry, and freedom of privacy and family life.[207]
While the Crown is empowered by statute and the
The governor general is appointed by the monarch on the advice of his federal prime minister and the lieutenant governors are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the federal prime minister. The
Sovereign immunity
It has been held since 1918 that the federal Crown is immune from provincial law.[216] Constitutional convention has also held that the Crown in right of each province is outside the jurisdiction of the courts in other provinces. This view, however, has been questioned.[217]
Lieutenant governors do not enjoy the same immunity as the sovereign in matters not relating to the powers of the viceregal office, as decided in the case of former Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Lise Thibault, who had been accused of misappropriating public funds.[218]
Personification of the Canadian state
As the living embodiment of the Crown,[124][219] the sovereign is regarded as the personification of the Canadian state[n 15][233] and is meant to represent all Canadians, regardless of political affiliation.[234] As such, he, along with his or her viceregal representatives, must "remain strictly neutral in political terms".[100]
The person of the reigning sovereign thus holds two distinct personas in constant coexistence, an ancient theory of the "King's two bodies"—the body natural (subject to infirmity and death) and the body politic (which never dies).
The king or queen of Canada is thus the employer of all government officials and staff (including the viceroys, judges, members of the
The monarch is at the apex of the
Head of state
Although it has been argued that the term head of state is a republican one inapplicable in a constitutional monarchy such as Canada, where the monarch is the embodiment of the state and thus cannot be head of it,[224] the sovereign is regarded by official government sources,[252] judges,[253] constitutional scholars,[226][254] and pollsters as the head of state,[255] while the governor general and lieutenant governors are all only representatives of, and thus equally subordinate to, that figure.[256] Some governors general, their staff, government publications,[226] and constitutional scholars like Ted McWhinney and C.E.S. Franks have,[257][258] however, referred to the position of governor general as that of Canada's head of state;[259][260] though, sometimes qualifying the assertion with de facto or effective;[264] Franks has hence recommended that the governor general be named officially as the head of state.[258] Still others view the role of head of state as being shared by both the sovereign and his viceroys.[268] Since 1927, governors general have been received on state visits abroad as though they were heads of state.[269]
Officials at Rideau Hall have attempted to use the Letters Patent, 1947, as justification for describing the governor general as head of state. However, the document makes no such distinction,[270] nor does it effect an abdication of the sovereign's powers in favour of the viceroy,[97] as it only allows the governor general to "act on the Queen's behalf".[271][272] D. Michael Jackson, former Chief of Protocol of Saskatchewan, argued that Rideau Hall had been attempting to "recast" the governor general as head of state since the 1970s and doing so preempted both the Queen and all of the lieutenant governors.[256] This caused not only "precedence wars" at provincial events (where the governor general usurped the lieutenant governor's proper spot as most senior official in attendance)[273][274] and Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to accord herself precedence before the Queen at a national occasion,[275] but also constitutional issues by "unbalancing [...] the federalist symmetry".[192][276] This has been regarded as both a natural evolution and as a dishonest effort to alter the constitution without public scrutiny.[270][277]
In a poll conducted by
Arms
The
The royal standard is the monarch's official flag, which depicts the royal arms in banner form.[283] It takes precedence above all other flags in Canada—including the national flag and those of the other members of the royal family[45]—and is typically flown from buildings, vessels, and vehicles in which the sovereign is present (although exceptions have been made for its use when the monarch is not in attendance). The royal standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly. Elements of the royal arms have also been incorporated into the governor general's flag; similarly, the flags of the lieutenant governors employ the shields of the relevant provincial coat of arms.
Federal constitutional role
The
The Crown is the pinnacle of the
Executive (King-in-Council)
The
In the construct of constitutional monarchy and
The royal prerogative further extends to foreign affairs, including the ratification of treaties, alliances, international agreements, and
though only the latter are established on official ministerial advice.Parliament (King-in-Parliament)
All laws in Canada are the monarch's and the sovereign is one of the three components of the Parliament of Canada
The governor general is further responsible for summoning the House of Commons, while either the viceroy or monarch can
The monarch does not have the prerogative to impose and collect new taxes without the authorization of an
Courts (King-on-the-Bench)
The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all his subjects and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice
The monarch does not personally rule in judicial cases; this function of the royal prerogative is instead performed in trust and in the King's name by officers of His Majesty's court.[329] Common law holds the notion that the sovereign "can do no wrong": the monarch cannot be prosecuted in his own courts—judged by himself—for criminal offences under his own laws.[332] Canada inherited the common law version of Crown immunity from British law.[333] However, over time, the scope of said immunity has been steadily reduced by statute law. With the passage of relevant legislation through the provincial and federal parliaments, the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the King-in-Council), in all areas of Canada, is now liable in tort, as any normal person would be;[333] civil lawsuits against the Crown are permitted, but lawsuits against the monarch personally are not cognizable. In international cases, as a sovereign and under established principles of international law, the King of Canada is not subject to suit in foreign courts without his express consent.[292]
Within the royal prerogative is also the granting of immunity from prosecution,[334] mercy, and pardoning offences against the Crown.[335][336] Since 1878, the prerogative of pardon has always been exercised upon the recommendation of ministers.[337]
The Crown and Indigenous peoples
Included in Canada's constitution are the various treaties between the Crown and Canada's
The association stretches back to the
I have greatly appreciated the opportunity to discuss [...] the vital process of reconciliation in this country—not a one-off act, of course, but an ongoing commitment to healing, respect and understanding [...] with indigenous and non-indigenous peoples across Canada committing to reflect honestly and openly on the past and to forge a new relationship for the future.[350]
Prince
The link between the Crown and Indigenous peoples will sometimes be symbolically expressed through ceremony.[351] Gifts have been frequently exchanged and aboriginal titles have been bestowed upon royal and viceregal figures since the early days of indigenous contact with the Crown.[356] As far back as 1710, Indigenous leaders have met to discuss treaty business with royal family members or viceroys in private audience and many continue to use their connection to the Crown to further their political aims;[357] public ceremonies attended by the monarch or another member of the royal family have been employed as a platform on which to present complaints, witnessed by both national and international cameras.[360] Following country-wide protests, beginning in 2012, and the close of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 2015, focus turned toward rapprochement between the nations in the nation-to-nation relationship.[367]
Hereditary chiefs
The hereditary chiefs are leaders within
Today, the hereditary chiefs are not sovereign; according to the
Cultural role
Royal presence and duties
Members of the royal family have been present in Canada since the late 18th century, their reasons including participating in military manoeuvres, serving as the federal viceroy, or undertaking official royal tours, which "reinforce [the] country's collective heritage".[391] At least one royal tour has been conducted every year between 1957 and 2018.[392]
The "welfare and service" function of the monarchy is regarded as an important part of the modern monarchy's role and demonstrates a significant change to the institution in recent generations, from a heavily ceremonialized, imperial crown to a "more demotic and visible" head of state "interacting with the general population far beyond confined court circles."[393] As such, a prominent feature of tours are royal walkabouts; a tradition initiated in 1939 by Queen Elizabeth when she was in Ottawa and broke from the royal party to speak directly to gathered veterans.[394][395] Usually important milestones, anniversaries, or celebrations of Canadian culture will warrant the presence of the monarch,[394] while other members of the royal family will be asked to participate in lesser occasions. A household to assist and tend to the monarch forms part of the royal party.
Official duties involve the sovereign representing the Canadian state at home or abroad, or her relations as members of the royal family participating in government organized ceremonies either in Canada or elsewhere;[n 20][417] sometimes these individuals are employed in asserting Canada's sovereignty over its territories.[n 21] The advice of the Canadian Cabinet is the impetus for royal participation in any Canadian event, though, at present, the Chief of Protocol and his staff in the Department of Canadian Heritage are, as part of the State Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Program,[419][420] responsible for orchestrating any official events in or for Canada that involve the royal family.[421]
Conversely, unofficial duties are performed by royal family members for Canadian organizations of which they may be patrons, through their attendance at charity events, visiting with members of the Canadian Forces as colonel-in-chief, or marking certain key anniversaries.[413][414] The invitation and expenses associated with these undertakings are usually borne by the associated organization.[413] In 2005, members of the royal family were present at a total of 76 Canadian engagements, as well as several more through 2006 and 2007.[422] In the period between 2019 and 2022, they carried out 53 engagements, the number reduced, and all through the latter year and a half being virtual, because of restrictions in place during the COVID-19 pandemic.[423] The various viceroys took part in 4,023 engagements through 2019 and 2020, both in-person and virtually.[424]
Apart from Canada, the King and other members of the royal family regularly perform public duties in the other 14 Commonwealth realms in which the King is head of state. This situation, however, can mean the monarch and/or members of the royal family will be promoting one nation and not another; a situation that has been met with criticism.[n 22]
Symbols, associations, and awards
The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign himself,
Since the days of King
Members of the royal family also act as ceremonial
A number of Canadian civilian organizations have association with the monarchy, either through their being founded via a
Throughout the 1970s, symbols of the monarch and monarchy were slowly removed from the public eye. For instance, the Queen's portrait was seen less in
Significance to Canadian identity
In his 2018 book, The Canadian Kingdom: 150 Years of Constitutional Monarchy, Jackson wrote that "the Canadian manifestation of the monarchy is not only historical and constitutional, it is political, cultural, and social, reflecting, and contributing to, change and evolution in Canada's governance, autonomy, and identity."[70] Since at least the 1930s,[437] supporters of the Crown have held the opinion that the monarch is a unifying focal point for the nation's "historic consciousness"—the country's heritage being "unquestionably linked with the history of monarchy"[391]—and Canadian patriotism, traditions, and shared values,[391] "around which coheres the nation's sense of a continuing personality".[438] This infusion of monarchy into Canadian governance and society helps strengthen Canadian identity[391] and distinguish it from American identity,[439] a difference that has existed since at least 1864, when it was a factor in the Fathers of Confederation choosing to keep constitutional monarchy for the new country in 1866.[440] Former Governor General Vincent Massey articulated in 1967 that the monarchy "stands for qualities and institutions which mean Canada to every one of us and which, for all our differences and all our variety, have kept Canada Canadian."[441]
I want the Crown in Canada to represent everything that is best and most admired in the Canadian ideal. I will continue to do my best to make it so during my lifetime.[442]
Elizabeth II, 1973
But, Canadians were, through the late 1960s to the 2000s, encouraged by federal and provincial governments to "neglect, ignore, forget, reject, debase, suppress, even hate, and certainly treat as foreign what their parents and grandparents, whether spiritual or blood, regarded as the basis of Canadian nationhood, autonomy, and history", including the monarchy.[443] resulting in a disconnect between the Canadian populace and their monarch.[440] Former Governor General Roland Michener said in 1970 that anti-monarchists claimed the Canadian Crown is foreign and incompatible with Canada's multicultural society,[296] which the government promoted as a Canadian identifier, and Lawrence Martin called in 2007 for Canada to become a republic in order to "re-brand the nation".[444] However, Michener also stated, "[the monarchy] is our own by inheritance and choice, and contributes much to our distinctive Canadian identity and our chances of independent survival amongst the republics of North and South America."[296] Journalist Christina Blizzard emphasized in 2009 that the monarchy "made [Canada] a haven of peace and justice for immigrants from around the world",[445] while Michael Valpy contended in 2009 that the Crown's nature permitted non-conformity amongst its subjects, thereby opening the door to multiculturalism and pluralism.[47] Johnston described the Crown as providing "space for our values and beliefs as Canadians."[191]
In media and popular culture
Painting and sculpture
Aside from official artworks, such as monuments and portraits commissioned by government bodies, Canadian painters have, by their own volition or for private organizations, created more expressive, informal depictions of Canada's monarchs and other members of the royal family, ranging from fine art to irreverent graffiti. For example, the English-Canadian artist Frederic Marlett Bell-Smith produced The Artist Painting Queen Victoria in 1895, which now resides at the National Gallery of Canada. At Library and Archives Canada is the painting The Unveiling of the National War Memorial, capturing the dedication of the monument, in Ottawa, by King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1939; though, the artist is unknown.[446]
Portraits of Elizabeth II hung in several hockey arenas across Canada after her accession in 1952. One was in place in Maple Leaf Gardens until the early 1970s, when owner Harold Ballard had it removed to construct more seating, stating, "if people want to see pictures of the Queen, they can go to an art gallery."[454] Three large portraits of Elizabeth II were created for Winnipeg Arena, on display there from the building's opening in 1955 to 1999.[458]
At the time of the sesquicentennial of Confederation in 2017, Vancouver Island-based[459] artist Timothy Hoey created a "Canada 150" version of his decade-long "O Canada" project, painting 150 Canadian icons in acrylic paint on 20.3 by 25.4 centimetre (eight by 10 inch) boards.[460][461] Among them are numerous depictions of Queen Elizabeth II with other Canadian icons, such as beavers, Cheezies, the Grey Cup,[460] the Stanley Cup,[461] a bottle of beer (O Canada Liz Enjoying Some Wobbly-Pops),[462] Rush (O Canada Closer to the Heart), the Hudson's Bay point blanket,[462] the Trans-Canada Highway, a birch canoe, a buckskin jacket, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police uniform, a Montreal Canadiens hockey sweater, and so on.[460] Hoey had previously painted Elizabeth, in formal attire and tiara, holding a hockey stick in front of a Hudson's Bay point blanket; the work titled O-Canada Liz.[463] In 2021, he depicted the Queen in a decorative hat, uniform of the Vancouver Canucks from the 1978–1979 season, and full goaltender equipment.[464]
The also exist
Television
The television series
External videos | |
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Scott Thompson as The Queen Source: Broadway Video. |
Canadian comedian
The Canadian monarchy was
Royal family and house
The Canadian royal family is the group of people who are comparatively closely related to the country's monarch and,[476] as such, belong to the House of Windsor and owe their allegiance specifically to the reigning king or queen of Canada.[477] There is no legal definition of who is or is not a member of the royal family; though, the Government of Canada's website lists "working members of the royal family".[478]
Unlike in the United Kingdom, the monarch is the only member of the royal family with a title established through Canadian law and is styled by convention as his/her majesty,[479] as would be a queen consort. Otherwise, the remaining family members are, as a courtesy, styled and titled as they are in the UK,[479] according to letters patent issued there,[480][481] with additional French translations.[482]
Those in the royal family are distant relations of the
According to the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust,
However, it was not until October 2002 when the term Canadian royal family was first used publicly and officially by one of its members: in a speech to the Nunavut legislature at its opening, Queen Elizabeth II stated: "I am proud to be the first member of the Canadian royal family to be greeted in Canada's newest territory."[514][515] Princess Anne used it again when speaking at Rideau Hall in 2014,[516] as did the now King Charles in Halifax the same year.[517] Also in 2014, then-Premier of Saskatchewan Brad Wall called Prince Edward a member of the Canadian royal family.[518] By 2011, both Canadian and British media were referring to "Canada's royal family" or the "Canadian royal family".[523]
While Heard observed in the 2018 that no direct legal action has, so far, created a Canadian royal family,[524] he also asserted that the Canadian Heraldic Authority creating uniquely Canadian standards for members of the royal family other than the monarch was a symbolic "localization of the royal family";[525] Sean Palmer agreed, stating the banners are a sign the country has taken "'ownership' not only of the Queen of Canada, but of the other members of her family as well" and that doing so was another formal affirmation of the concept of a Canadian royal family "as distinct as the Queen of Canada is from the Queen of the United Kingdom".[515] Jai Patel and Sally Raudon also noted, in 2019, that the purpose of these heraldic banners was to recognize the owners' roles as members of the Canadian royal family.[526]
Federal residences and royal household
Buildings across Canada reserved by the Crown for the use of the monarch and his viceroys are called
British royalty have also owned homes and land in Canada in a private capacity: Edward VIII owned Bedingfield Ranch, near Pekisko, Alberta;[542] and Princess Margaret owned Portland Island, which was given to her by British Columbia in 1958. She offered it back to the province on permanent loan in 1961, which was accepted in 1966, and the island and surrounding waters eventually became Princess Margaret Marine Park.[543]
In addition to a
There are three
Security
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is tasked with providing security to the sovereign, the governor general (starting from when he or she is made governor general-designate[551]), and other members of the royal family; as outlined in the RCMP Regulations, the force "has a duty to protect individuals designated by the minister of public safety, including certain members of the royal family when visiting."[552] The RCMP's provision of service is determined based on threat and risk assessment, the seniority of the individual in terms of precedence and.[n 29] for members of the royal family, the nature of the royal tour—i.e. an official tour by the King or on behalf of the King or a working or private visit.[552] The governor general receives round-the-clock security from the Governor General Protection Detail,[554] part of the Personal Protection Group, based at Rideau Hall.
History
From colonies to independence
The Canadian monarchy can trace its ancestral lineage back to the
After the Canadian colonies of France were, via war and treaties, ceded to the British Crown, and the population was greatly expanded by
From 1786 through to the 1930s, members of the royal family toured Canada, including Prince William (later King William IV); Prince Edward, Duke of Kent; Prince Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII); Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn; John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, and Princess Louise; Prince Leopold; Princess Marie-Louise; Prince George, Duke of Cornwall and York (later King George V), and Princess Victoria (later Queen Mary); Prince Arthur (son of the Duke of Connaught); Princess Patricia; Prince Albert (later King George VI); Prince Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII); Prince George, Duke of Kent; and Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester.[563]
The Canadian Crown
King George VI became in 1939 the first reigning monarch of Canada to tour the country, doing so with his wife, Queen Elizabeth. Only weeks later, the King, on the advice of his Canadian Prime Minister, declared war on Nazi Germany.[564] Throughout the conflict, George boosted the morale of his Canadian troops[565] while Governor General the Earl of Athlone (the King's uncle) supported the war effort in Canada. The men were occasionally assisted in their efforts by other members of the royal family.
Through the 1960s and 1970s, the rise of Quebec nationalism and changes in Canadian identity created an atmosphere where the purpose and role of the monarchy came into question. Some references to the monarch and the monarchy were removed from the public eye and moves were made by the federal government to constitutionally alter the Crown's place and role in Canada, first by explicit legal amendments and later by subtle attrition.[571] But, provincial and federal ministers, along with loyal national citizen's organizations, ensured that the system remained the same in essence.[572]
The Queen publicly expressed her personal support for the
Members of the royal family continued to be present at important national events through the decades: the Queen in 1970, 1971, and 1973, respectively, marked the anniversaries of
The 21st century
By 2002, the royal tour and associated
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Queen expressed her support for all Canadians and thanks to those who were caring for the vulnerable and providing essential services.[586] As the pandemic waned into 2022, celebrations were mounted around the country and throughout the year to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee;[587] the first-ever such event in Canadian history.[588] It was also, though, the first time since at least Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887 that the federal Cabinet did not advise the Crown to create an associated medal.[589] In response, six provinces produced their own Platinum Jubilee medals; another first.[590]
The subject of reconciliation with Canada's Indigenous peoples came to the forefront of the public consciousness in 2021, particularly in regard to residential schools. Statues of Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II in Winnipeg were vandalized.[591][592] On the first National Day for Truth and Reconciliation, Elizabeth made a public statement, saying she "joins with all Canadians [...] to reflect on the painful history that Indigenous peoples endured in residential schools in Canada and on the work that remains to heal and to continue to build an inclusive society."[593] In the same year, the Queen appointed Mary Simon as the first Indigenous governor general in Canadian history.[n 30][594] During Charles's tour for his mother's Platinum Jubilee, the BBC's royal correspondent observed that "there [was] no shying away from acknowledging and highlighting the scandalous way many indigenous peoples have been treated in Canada."[361]
Queen Elizabeth II died on 8 September 2022 and was succeeded by her eldest son, Charles III. The Queen's final public statement was issued on 7 September, in the aftermath of the 2022 Saskatchewan stabbings,[595][596] stating she "mourn[s] with all Canadians at this tragic time."[597] Elizabeth reigned for almost half of Canada's history since Confederation,[598] being only the sixth Canadian monarch since 1867.[599]
Immediately following a formal meeting of the King's Privy Council for Canada, the new king was proclaimed on 10 September in a ceremony at Rideau Hall.[600][601] On 4 May 2023, the King held audience with Simon and Indigenous leaders, who also attended his coronation two days later.[602]
Public perception and understanding
Prior to the 1970s, Canadians' view of the monarchy was more focused on the person of the monarch than the institution's place in the country's framework.[525] Monet and Frank MacKinnon discerned in that decade that the Crown, as a legal and constitutional entity, had, instead, became the cynosure.[603][604] Smith, in 2017, and Jackson, in 2018, observed the shift continuing, especially as "the process of 'Canadianization' of the Crown picked up momentum in the early 21st century."[605][606]
Still, beginning in the later decades of the 20th century, commentators stated that contemporary Canadians had and have a poor understanding of the Canadian monarchy;[607] something the Monarchist League of Canada (MLC) claims opponents of the monarchy exacerbate by spreading disinformation and then take advantage of.[608] Jackson wrote in his book, The Crown and Canadian Federalism, that this is part of a wider ignorance about Canadian civics[609] and Hugo Cyr agreed,[610] while Smith researched for his 1995 book, The Invisible Crown, he found it difficult to "find anyone who could talk knowledgeably about the subject".[611] Former Governors General Clarkson and Johnston made similar observations[191][612] and Senator Lowell Murray wrote in 2003, "the Crown has become irrelevant to most Canadians' understanding of our system of government", which he attributed to the "fault of successive generations of politicians, of an educational system that has never given the institution due study, and of past viceregal incumbents themselves".[613]
On education, teacher and author Nathan Tidridge asserted that, beginning in the 1960s, the role of the Crown disappeared from provincial education curricula, as the general subject of civics came to receive less attention.[570] He said Canadians are being "educated to be illiterate, ambivalent, or even hostile toward our constitutional monarchy".[609] The MLC agreed, stating Canada has "an educational system which unfortunately often fails to provide comprehensive knowledge of Canada's constitution."[608]
Michael Valpy also pointed to the fact that "the Crown's role in the machinery of Canada's constitutional monarchy rarely sees daylight. Only a handful of times in our history has it been subjected to glaring sunshine, unfortunately resulting in a black hole of public understanding as to how it works."[614] He later iterated, "the public's attention span on the constitutional intricacies of the monarchy is clinically short".[615] At the same time, it has been theorized the monarchy is so prevalent in Canada—by way of all manner of symbols, place names, royal tours, etcetera—that Canadians fail to take note of it; the monarchy "functions like a tasteful wallpaper pattern in Canada: enjoyable in an absent-minded way, but so ubiquitous as to be almost invisible".[493]
John Pepall argued in 1990 that, among all this, a "Liberal-inspired republican misconception of the role" of governor general had taken root, though the Conservative government headed by Brian Mulroney exacerbated the matter.[616] The position of prime minister has simultaneously undergone, with encouragement from its occupants,[616] what has been described as a "presidentialization",[617][618] to the point that its incumbents publicly outshine the actual head of state.[619][620] David S. Donovan felt Canadians mostly consider the monarch and her representatives as purely ceremonial and symbolic figures,[621] while also still viewing the sovereign as British, even if they understand he is King of Canada.[524] It was argued by Alfred Neitsch that this undermined the Crown's legitimacy as a check and balance in the governmental system,[622] a situation Helen Forsey (daughter of Canadian constitutional expert Eugene Forsey) said prime ministers take advantage of, portraying themselves as the embodiment of popular democracy and the reserve powers of the Crown as illegitimate.[n 31] The issue is particularly acute in Quebec,[304] where sovereigntist politicians consider the Canadian monarchy as British, foreign, and, consequently, as symbol of oppression.[623]
Beginning slightly earlier, a "growing interest in the Crown and its prerogatives" was observed, as evidenced by "a burst of articles, books and conferences";
Some Canadians have taken the opposite extreme view of the Crown's powers, such as when, in 2013, the leader of the Green Party of Canada, Elizabeth May, wrote to Queen Elizabeth II asking her to call a "royal inquiry" to "investigate what may potentially be criminal activities which [sic] influenced Canada's last election" and "restore Canada to a free and fair democracy." The monarch's secretary instructed May, "as a constitutional sovereign, Her Majesty acts through her personal representative, the Governor-General, on the advice of her Canadian ministers and it is to them that your appeal should be directed."[626] So many protesters involved in the 2022 Freedom Convoy called and emailed the office of Governor General Mary Simon to pressure her into dismissing her Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau, or dissolving Parliament that Simon made a rare public statement on the role of the governor general. Lagassé pointed to that as "evidence of a recent trend in protest movements", saying, "it has become routine in Canadian politics to write a letter to the Queen, Governor General, or a lieutenant governor asking them to exercise their powers in some way, contrary to constitutional conventions. This is political theatre, no more."[627]
The relationship between Canada's Indigenous peoples and the monarch remains unchanged, aside from the issue of
Within Quebec, too, the Canadian Crown is frequently misrepresented as the British Crown and that false foreignness used in political, particularly sovereigntist, discourse as an argument in favour of extracting the Crown from Quebec or Quebec from Canada. For instance, in the televised
Debate
Outside of academic circles, there has been little national debate on the monarchy.[644] The position of monarch in Canada is highly protected by the Constitution Act, 1982—which mandates that any major constitutional amendment, such as any change to the monarchy, must receive unanimous consent of the Senate, the House of Commons, and all 10 provincial legislative assemblies—and treaties between the Crown and Indigenous peoples that play a role in entrenching the monarchy.[n 32]
Canada has two special-interest groups representing the debate, who occasionally argue the issue in the media: the Monarchist League of Canada (MLC) and Citizens for a Canadian Republic.[646][647] There are also other organizations that support and advocate the monarchy, such as the Institute for the Study of the Crown in Canada,[648] the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust,[649] the Friends of the Canadian Crown,[650] Canadian Friends of the Royal Family,[651] the Société de la Couronne du Canada,[652] the Orange Order in Canada,[653] and the United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada.[654]
Out of Canada's four most prominent political parties, neither the Liberal Party nor the Conservative Party are officially in favour of abolishing the monarchy (the Conservative Party cite support for constitutional monarchy as a founding principle in its policy declaration)[655] and the New Democratic Party has no official position on the role of the Crown. Only some members of Parliament belonging to these parties and the leaders of the Bloc Québécois have made any statements suggesting abolition of the monarchy.[656][657]
Opinion polls on the Canadian monarchy have been regularly conducted since the 1990s. An analysis of these polls in 2008 highlighted an increased disaffection with the monarchy, albeit with internal contradictions in specific polling results, with some criticizing the polling questions for using "inconsistent and sometimes ambiguous wording."[658] Questions often describe the monarch or monarchy as "British", terminology at odds with the contemporary situation in Canada, wherein the monarchy is a Canadian institution,[660] separate from that of the United Kingdom,[661] and it, the Crown, and royal family are referred to as Canadian.[667] Both monarchists and republicans agree the populace's general lack of understanding about the monarchy affects opinions.[608][668]
The idea of a uniquely Canadian monarch,
See also
- List of monarchies
- Monarchies in the Americas
- Royal and viceroyal transport in Canada
- Royal eponyms in Canada
- List of sovereign states headed by Elizabeth II
- Canada portal
- Monarchy portal
- Politics portal
Notes
- ^ The date of the first establishment of monarchy in Canada varies: some sources give the year as 1497, when John Cabot landed somewhere along the North American coast (most likely Nova Scotia or Newfoundland) claiming an undefined extent of land for King Henry VII,[43] while others put it at 1534, when the colony of Canada was founded in the name of King Francis I.[50] Historian Carolyn Harris places the beginning of Canada's monarchical government at the appointment of Samuel de Champlain as Governor of New France, representing King Louis XIII, in 1627.[51] Although the exact date differs, the fact that a monarchical form of governance has existed since the 16th century is in common agreement.[57]
- telegram to King Edward VII regarding the inauguration of Alberta and Saskatchewan into Confederation: "[each one] a new leaf in Your Majesty's Maple Crown".[68]
- ^ For instance, Governor General Jules Léger ended the second session of the 30th Canadian Parliament on 17 October 1977, while Queen Elizabeth II was in Ottawa to deliver the Speech from the Throne at the opening of the third session on 18 October. Governor General Adrienne Clarkson granted royal assent to four bills on 19 May 2005,[75] while Queen Elizabeth II was touring Saskatchewan and Alberta to mark the 100th anniversary of those provinces joining Confederation.
- ^ a b c The sovereign has carried out foreign relations as the representative uniquely of Canada.
- ^ For example, Queen Elizabeth II was in the United Kingdom when she signed the proclamation of the National Flag of Canada in 1965.[76] King George VI was in the United Kingdom when, as king of Canada, he declared war on Germany in 1939.[77][78]
- English Court of Appeal ruled in 1982, while "there is only one person who is the Sovereign within the British Commonwealth [...] in matters of law and government the Queen of the United Kingdom, for example, is entirely independent and distinct from the Queen of Canada."[85]
- Nickle Resolution, the Canadian Cabinet advised the Queen not to grant Black such an honour. If Blair had not yielded, the Queen would have been in the situation of having to grant an honour on the advice of her British Prime Minister and to object to the same as Queen of Canada on the advice of then-Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien.
- ^ For example, Edward VIII was never crowned, yet was undoubtedly king during his short time on the throne.
- ^ The only Canadian monarch to abdicate, Edward VIII, did so with the authorization of the Canadian government granted in His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act, 1936, and the Succession to the Throne Act, 1937, later confirmed this in law.
- Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer[131] separately to the same approval given by the Queen in her British Council illustrated the existence of the Royal Marriages Act in Canadian law.[132] In 1947, the King in his Canadian Council gave the same consent to the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Philip Mountbatten, again separate from the approval he gave in his British Council.[131]
- ^ Upon acceding to the throne on 8 September 2022, King Charles III stated, "I am deeply aware of this great inheritance and of the duties and heavy responsibilities of sovereignty, which have now passed to me. In taking up these responsibilities, I shall strive to follow the inspiring example I have been set in upholding constitutional government and to seek the peace, harmony, and prosperity of [...] the Commonwealth realms and territories throughout the world."[187]
- ^ For example, if a lawsuit is filed against the federal government, the respondent is formally described as His Majesty the King in Right of Canada, or simply Rex.[155] Likewise, in a case in which a party sues both the province of Saskatchewan and the federal government, the respondents would be formally called His Majesty the King in Right of Saskatchewan and His Majesty the King in Right of Canada.[195]
- ^ Illustrative of this arrangement is property transfers; of this, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources states: "When public land is required by the federal government or one of its departments, or any provincial ministry, the land itself is not transferred. What is transferred is the responsibility to manage the lands on behalf of Her Majesty the Queen (HMQ). This is accomplished by an order-in-council or a minister's order, which transfers management of land either from HMQ in right of Ontario to HMQ in right of Canada as represented by a department or to HMQ in right of Ontario as represented by another ministry. The Crown does not transfer ownership to itself."[196]
- ^ Robert E. Hawkins called this "inefficient efficiency", which can "be placed alongside the other oxymorons that convention embeds in our constitution, oxymorons like loyal opposition, liberal democracy, and constitutional monarchy itself."[201]
- Louis XIV: "l'État, c'est moi", or, "I am the state".[221] Robertson Davies stated in 1994, "the Crown is the consecrated spirit of Canada",[222] and past Ontario chairman of the Monarchist League of Canada Gary Toffoli opined, "the Queen is the legal embodiment of the state at both the national and the provincial levels [...] She is our sovereign and it is the role of the Queen, recognized by the constitutional law of Canada, to embody the state."[223]
- ^ As Peter Boyce put it: "The Crown as a concept cannot be disentangled from the person of the monarch; but, standard reference to the Crown extends well beyond the Queen's person."[236]
- ^ The Supreme Court found in the 1980 case Attorney General of Quebec v. Labrecque that civil servants in Canada are not contracted by an abstraction called "the state"; but, rather, they are employed by the monarch, who, "enjoys a general capacity to contract in accordance with the rule of ordinary law."[240]
- ^ It is stated in the Rules & Forms of the House of Commons of Canada that, "allegiance to the King means allegiance to the country."[243]
- ^ See 'Responsibilities' and Note 1 at Cabinet of Canada.
- ^ a b c Though the royal family represents other countries abroad, as directed by their respective cabinets, and typically the governor general will undertake state visits and other foreign duties on behalf of the Queen of Canada,[226][396][397] members of the royal family will also take part in Canadian events overseas.[412]
- ^ In 1970, Queen Elizabeth II, the Duke of Edinburgh, Prince Charles, and Princess Anne undertook a tour of Northern Canada, in part to demonstrate to an unconvinced American government and the Soviet Union that Canada had certain claim to its Arctic territories, which were strategic during the Cold War.[418]
- ^ Former Minister of External Affairs Mitchell Sharp commented on a situation wherein Elizabeth II was in Latin America to promote British goods at the same time a Canadian ministerial trip to the same area was underway to promote Canadian products. Sharp stated: "We couldn't ask Her Majesty to perform the function she was performing for Britain on that Latin American trip because the Queen is never recognized as Queen of Canada, except when she is in Canada."[425] The Queen's participation in Canadian events overseas contradicts Sharp's statement, however.[n 4][n 20]
- ^ Such events include Troopings of the Colour, inspections of the troops, and anniversaries of key battles; whenever the sovereign or a member of his family is in Ottawa, they lay a wreath at the National War Memorial.
- Hermann Friedrichof Leiningen, great-great-great grandsons of Queen Victoria, are also Canadian citizens.
- Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, both Michael Valpy, writing for the CBC, and The Globe and Mail referred to William as "a prince of Canada".[500][501]
- ^ In 1919, Prince Edward Albert (the future King Edward VIII) asserted, "I want Canada to look upon me as a Canadian, if not actually by birth, yet certainly in mind and spirit."[502] Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh, said in 1951 that, when in Canada, she was "amongst fellow countrymen" and,[98][503] after acceding to the throne as Queen Elizabeth II, she, when departing the United States for Canada in 1983, stated to President Ronald Reagan, "I'm going home to Canada tomorrow".[504] In 2005, Elizabeth said she agreed with the statement earlier made by her mother, Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, that Canada felt like a "home away from home";[505] in the same year, she remarked, "I have always felt not only welcome but at home in Canada."[391] Similarly, the Queen said in 2010, in Nova Scotia, "it is very good to be home".[506]
- ^ While the government houses are the King's official residences in Canada, they are almost exclusively occupied by the sovereign's representative in each of those jurisdictions.[527][528]
- ^ For example, when the Duke and Duchess of Sussex resided for a time on Vancouver Island, as they were planning their future as members of the royal family, the RCMP provided the couple's security. However, when the Sussexes decided to step down as senior members of the royal family, the RCMP reassessed its provision of service. In a briefing note to the then-Minister of Public Safety, Bill Blair, the force noted, "the Sussex family's stay in Canada is of a private nature and, to date, there have been no official outings wherein the Duke and Duchess are representing the Queen. There is no indication of either the Duke or Duchess participating in any official capacity for the Crown in Canada in the next two months. Should this change, however, the RCMP will assess and provide security accordingly."[553]
- ^ Indigenous persons had already been appointed as lieutenant governors during Elizabeth's reign.
- ^ See Note 2 at Government of Canada.
- ^ Lagassé said, "you would need to have Indigenous peoples involved and consulted properly as well, in particular, since their treaty rights are understood to flow from treaties with the Crown."[645]
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Further information
Reading
- Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (1991). Royal Observations: Canadians and Royalty. Hamilton: Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-076-5.
Royal Observations: Canadians and Royalty.
- ISBN 1-55082-301-9.
- Coates, Colin (2006). Majesty In Canada: Essays On The Role of Royalty. Hamilton: Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-586-4.
- Farthing, John (1957), Robinson, Judith (ed.), Freedom Wears a Crown (First ed.), Toronto: Kingswood House, ASIN B002CZW3T2
- Jackson, D. Michael (2018a), The Canadian Kingdom: 150 Years of Constittuional Monarchy, Toronto: Dundurn, ISBN 978-1-4597-4118-8, retrieved 15 April 2023
- Munro, Kenneth (1977). Coates, Colin (ed.). "The Crown and French Canada: The role of the Governors-General in Making the Crown relevant, 1867–1917". Imperial Canada. The University of Edinburgh: 109–121.
- Munro, Kenneth (March 2001). "Canada as Reflected in her Participation in the Coronation of her Monarchs in the Twentieth Century". Journal of Historical Sociology. 14: 21–46. .
- Skolnik, Michael L. (1990). "Lipset's "Continental Divide" and the Ideological Basis for Differences in Higher Education between Canada and United States". Canadian Journal of Higher Education. 20 (2): 81–93. ISSN 0316-1218.
- Smith, David E. (1999). The Republican Option in Canada: Past and Present. Toronto-Buffalo-London: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-4469-7.
The Republican Option in Canada: Past and Present.
- Tasko, Patti (2007). Canada's Queen: Elizabeth II: A Celebration of Her Majestys Friendship with the People of Canada. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-15444-1.
- Tidridge, Nathan; Guthrie, Gavin (2007). The Canadian Monarchy: Exploring the role of Canada's Crown in the day-to-day life of our country. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. ISBN 978-0-9781853-0-5.
- Vaughan, Frederick (2004). Canadian Federalist Experiment: From Defiant Monarchy to Reluctant Republic. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2537-8.
Viewing
- The Royal Visit (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board. 1939.
- Bairstow, David; Parker, Gudrun; Roger (1951). Royal Journey (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board.
- Stark, Allen (1953). Canada at the Coronation (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board.
- Howe, John (1957). The Sceptre and the Mace (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board.
- Sparling, Gordon; Blais, Roger (1959). Royal River (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board.
- Sparling, Gordon (1964). The Queen in Canada, 1964 (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board.
- Low, Colin; Spotton, John (1979). A Pinto for the Prince (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board.
- Hubert, Davis (2012). The Portrait (Video). Ottawa: National Film Board.
- CPAC (2018). The Queen's Power in Canada. YouTube.
External links
- Government of Canada: Monarchy and the Crown
- The Canadian Encyclopedia: Constitutional monarchy
- The Canadian Encyclopedia: Crown
- The Canadian Encyclopedia: Sovereign
- Institute for the Study of the Crown in Canada
- Monarchist League of Canada: Our Monarchy Archived 13 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine