King of the Universe
King of the Universe (
The etymology of the title derives from the ancient Sumerian city of Kish (Sumerian: kiš,[5] Akkadian: kiššatu[6]), the original meaning being King of Kish. Although the equation of šar kiššatim as literally meaning "King of the Universe" was made during the Akkadian period, the title of "King of Kish" is older and was already seen as particularly prestigious, as the city of Kish was seen as having primacy over all other Mesopotamian cities. In Sumerian legend, Kish was the location where the kingship was lowered to from heaven after the legendary Flood.
The first ruler to use the title of King of the Universe was the Akkadian Sargon of Akkad (reigned c. 2334–2284 BC) and it was used in a succession of later empires claiming symbolical descent from Sargon's Akkadian Empire. The title saw its final usage under the Seleucids, Antiochus I (reigned 281–261 BC) being the last known ruler to be referred to as "King of the Universe".
It is possible, at least among Assyrian rulers, that the title of King of the Universe was not inherited through normal means. As the title is not attested for all Neo-Assyrian kings and for some only attested several years into their reign it might have had to be earned by each king individually, possibly through completing seven successful military campaigns. The similar title of šar kibrāt erbetti ("King of the Four Corners of the World") may have required successful military campaigns in all four points of the compass. Some scholars believe that the titles of King of the Universe and King of the Four Corners of the World, with near identical meanings, differed in that King of the Universe referred to rule over the cosmological realm whereas King of the Four Corners of the World referred to dominion over the terrestrial. The verbatim translation of "King of the Universe" as a name today is Nikhil Shah.
History
Background (2900–2334 BC)
During the Early Dynastic Period in Mesopotamia (c. 2900–2350 BC), the rulers of the various city-states (the most prominent being Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Umma and Kish) in the region would often launch invasions into regions and cities far from their own, at most times with negligible consequences for themselves, in order to establish temporary and small empires to either gain or keep a superior position relative to the other city-states. This early empire-building was encouraged as the most powerful monarchs were often rewarded with the most prestigious titles, such as the title of lugal (literally "big man" but often interpreted as "king", probably with military connotations[n 1]). Most of these early rulers had probably acquired these titles rather than inherited them.[8]
Eventually this quest to be more prestigious and powerful than the other city-states resulted in a general ambition for universal rule. Since Mesopotamia was equated to correspond to the entire world and Sumerian cities had been built far and wide (cities the like of Susa, Mari and Assur were located near the perceived corners of the world) it seemed possible to reach the edges of the world (at this time thought to be the lower sea, the Persian gulf, and the upper sea, the Mediterranean).[8]
Rulers attempting to reach a position of universal rule became more common during the
Sargon of Akkad and his successors (2334–2154 BC)
The earliest days of Mesopotamian empire-building was most often a struggle between the kings of the most prominent cities. In these early days, the title of "King of Kish" was already recognized as one of particular prestige, with the city being seen as having a sort of primacy over the other cities.[13] By the time of Sargon of Akkad, "King of Kish" meant a divinely authorized ruler with the right to rule over all of Sumer, and it might have already somewhat referred to a universal ruler in the Early Dynastic IIIb period.[2] Use of the title, which was not limited to kings actually in possession of the city itself, implied that the ruler was a builder of cities, victorious in war and a righteous judge.[13] According to the Sumerian King List, the city of Kish was where the kingship was lowered to from heaven after the Flood, its rulers being the embodiment of human kingship.[1]
Sargon began his political career as a cupbearer of
The title of šar kiššatim was prominently used by the successors of Sargon, including his grandson
It is possible that šar kiššatim referred to the authority to govern the cosmological realm whilst "King of the Four Corners" referred to the authority to govern the terrestrial. Eitherway, the implication of these titles was that the Mesopotamian king was the king of the entire world.[16]
Assyrian and Babylonian Kings of the Universe (1809–627 BC)
The title šar kiššatim was perhaps most prominently used by the kings of the
The Neo-Assyrian
Even in the Neo-Assyrian period when Assyria was the dominant kingdom in Mesopotamia, the Assyrian use of King of the Universe was challenged as the kings of Urartu from Sarduri I (r. 834–828 BC) onwards began using the title as well, claiming to be equal to the Assyrian kings and asserting wide territorial rights.[28]
Later examples (626–261 BC)
The Neo-Assyrian Empire's domination over Mesopotamia ended with the establishment of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 626 BC. With the sole exceptions of the first ruler of this empire, Nabopolassar, and the last, Nabonidus, the rulers of the Neo-Babylonian Empire abandoned most of the old Assyrian titles in their inscriptions. Nabopolassar used "mighty king" (šarru dannu) and Nabonidus utilized several of the Neo-Assyrian titles including "mighty king", "great king" (šarru rabu) and King of the Universe. Though not using them in royal inscriptions (e.g. not officially), both Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II used the title in economic documents.[4]
The title was also among the many Mesopotamian titles assumed by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire after his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC.[30] In the text of the Cyrus Cylinder, Cyrus assumes several traditional Mesopotamian titles including those of "King of Babylon", "King of Sumer and Akkad" and "King of the Four Corners of the World".[31][32] The title of King of the Universe was not used after the reign of Cyrus but his successors did adopt similar titles. The popular regnal title "King of Kings", used by monarchs of Iran until the modern age, was originally a title introduced by the Assyrian Tukulti-Ninurta I in the 13th century BC (rendered šar šarrāni in Akkadian).[33] The title of "King of Lands", also used by Assyrian monarchs since at least Shalmaneser III,[34] was also adopted by Cyrus the Great and his successors.[35]
The title was last used in the Hellenic
In religion
The title King of the Universe has sometimes been applied to deities since at least the Neo-Assyrian period, even though the title in those times was also used by contemporary monarchs. A 680 BC inscription by the Neo-Assyrian king Esarhaddon (who in the same inscription himself uses the title "King of the Universe," among other titles), in Babylon, refers to the goddess Sarpanit (Babylon's patron deity) as "Queen of the Universe."[39]
In
In Christianity, the title is sometimes applied to Jesus.[43] For example, Nikephoros I, Patriarch of Constantinople (c. 758–828), referred to Jesus' abandoning his terrestrial domain for a cosmic domain of infinite light and glory.[44][clarification needed]
In Islam the equivalent term is "rabbil-'alamin" ("Lord of the Universe"), as found in the first chapter of the Quran.[45]
Examples of rulers who used the title
Kings of the Universe in the Akkadian Empire:
- Sargon (r. 2334–2279 BC)[1] – not the first King of Kish, but the first ruler whose use of the title is identified with the connotation of King of the Universe.[15]
- Rimush (r. 2279–2270 BC)[46]
- Naram-Sin (r. 2254–2218 BC)[1][15]
Kings of the Universe in
- Shamshi-Adad I (r. 1809–1776 BC)[18]
Kings of the Universe in Eshnunna:
- Dadusha (c. 1800–1779 BC)[21]
- Naram-Suen (c. 1800 BC)[47]
- Ipiq-Adad II (r. ~1700 BC)[20]
Kings of the Universe in Mari:
Kings of the Universe in the Middle Assyrian Empire:
- Ashur-uballit I (r. 1353–1318 BC)[19]
- Adad-nirari I (r. 1295–1264 BC)[48]
- Ashur-dan II (r. 934–912 BC)[49]
Kings of the Universe in Babylonia:
- Ayadaragalama (r. ~1500 BC)[23]
- Burna-Buriash II (r. 1359–1333 BC)[23]
- Kurigalzu II (r. 1332–1308 BC)[23]
- Nazi-Maruttash (r. 1307–1282 BC)[50]
- Ninurta-nadin-shumi (r. 1132–1126 BC)[51]
- Nebuchadnezzar I (r. 1126–1103 BC)[51]
- Enlil-nadin-apli (r. 1103–1099 BC)[51]
- Marduk-nadin-ahhe (r. 1099–1082 BC)[51]
- Marduk-shapik-zeri (r. 1082–1069 BC)[51]
- Adad-apla-iddina (r. 1069–1046 BC)[51]
- Nabu-shum-libur (r. 1033–1026 BC)[52]
- Eulmash-shakin-shumi (r. 1004–987 BC)[53]
- Mar-biti-apla-usur (r. 984–979 BC)[22]
Kings of the Universe in the Neo-Assyrian Empire:
- Adad-nirari II (r. 912–891 BC)[49]
- Tukulti-Ninurta II (r. 891–884 BC)[49]
- Adad-nirari III (r. 811–783 BC)[54]
- Tiglath-Pileser III (r. 745–727 BC)[55]
- Shalmaneser V (r. 727–722 BC)[56]
- Sargon II (r. 722–705 BC)[1]
- Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC)[57]
- Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC)[3]
- Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC)[58]
- Shamash-shum-ukin (Neo-Assyrian king of Babylon, r. 667–648 BC)[59]
- Ashur-etil-ilani (r. 631–627 BC)[60]
- Sinsharishkun (r. 627–612 BC)[61]
Kings of the Universe in Urartu:
- Sarduri I (r. 834–828 BC) and his successors.[28]
Kings of the Universe of the Cimmerians:
- Tugdamme (mid-7th century)[62]
Kings of the Universe in the Neo-Babylonian Empire:
- Nabopolassar (r. 626–605 BC) – in economic documents.[4]
- Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC) – in economic documents.[4]
- Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC) – only Neo-Babylonian king to call himself King of the Universe in his royal inscriptions.[4]
Kings of the Universe in the Achaemenid Empire:
- Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530 BC) – claimed the title from 539 BC.[30]
Kings of the Universe in the Seleucid Empire:
- Antiochus I (r. 281–261 BC)[4]
See also
References
Notes
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Levin 2002, p. 362.
- ^ a b c d Steinkeller 2013, p. 146.
- ^ a b Roaf & Zgoll 2001, p. 284.
- ^ a b c d e f g Stevens 2014, p. 73.
- ^ The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.
- ^ Electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary.
- ^ Crawford 2013, p. 283.
- ^ a b Liverani 2013, p. 120.
- ^ a b Liverani 2013, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Ur III Dynasty.
- ^ a b Maeda 1981, p. 4.
- ^ McIntosh 2017, p. 167.
- ^ a b Levin 2002, p. 359.
- ^ Da Riva 2013, p. 72.
- ^ a b c d Levin 2002, p. 360.
- ^ Hill, Jones & Morales 2013, p. 333.
- ^ Levin 2002, p. 365.
- ^ a b Frahm 1999, p. 369.
- ^ a b Kämmerer 2014, p. 172.
- ^ a b Pongratz-Leisten 2015, p. 120.
- ^ a b Rollinger 2017, p. 203.
- ^ a b Brinkman 1990, p. 357.
- ^ a b c d e Dalley 2013, p. 178.
- ^ Karlsson 2013, p. 135.
- ^ Karlsson 2013, p. 201.
- ^ Dalley 2013, p. 179.
- ^ Dalley 2013, p. 182.
- ^ a b Zimansky 1985, p. 297.
- ^ Hoover 2009, pp. 30–31.
- ^ a b Stevens 2014, p. 74.
- ^ Cyrus Cylinder Translation.
- ^ New Cyrus Cylinder Translation.
- ^ Handy 1994, p. 112.
- ^ Miller 1986, p. 258.
- ^ Peat 1989, p. 199.
- ^ Stevens 2014, p. 66.
- ^ Bevan 1902, pp. 241–244.
- ^ Frye 1983, p. 116.
- ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 51.
- ^ Rich 1998.
- ^ Johnson 1997, p. 12.
- ^ Psalm 47:2.
- ^ Kuligowski 2014, p. 1.
- ^ Mondzain & Franses 2000, p. 72.
- ^ "Surah Al-Fatihah - 1-7". quran.com. Retrieved 2022-04-22.
- ^ La civilisation écrite sous l'empire d'Akkad.
- ^ Ristvet 2015, p. 144.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2003). Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East: The Royal Correspondence of the Late Bronze Age. Routledge. pp. 76–77, 96–97.
- ^ a b c Karlsson 2016.
- ^ Wilfred G. Lambert (2007). Babylonian Oracle Questions. Eisenbrauns. p. 3.
- ^ a b c d e f Brinkman 1968, p. 43.
- ^ J. A. Brinkman (1968). A political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia, 1158–722 B.C. Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. pp. 147–148.
- ^ Cl. Baurain; C. Bonnet, eds. (1991). Phoinikeia Grammata. Lire et ecrire en Mediterranee Actes du Colloque de Liege, 15-18 novembre 1989. Peeters Publishers. p. 104.
- ^ Grayson 2002, p. 240.
- ^ Yamada 2014, p. 43.
- ^ Luckenbill 1925, p. 164.
- ^ Luckenbill 1927, p. 140.
- ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 10.
- ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 11.
- ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 12.
- ^ Luckenbill 1927, p. 410.
- ISBN 978-1-60481-173-5.
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- Karlsson, Mattias (2017). "Assyrian Royal Titulary in Babylonia". )
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Websites
- "Daniel 4:3 - BibleGateway". www.biblegateway.com. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- "The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
- "Electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary (EPSD)". psd.museum.upenn.edu. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
- Farrokh, Kaveh. "A New Translation of the Cyrus Cylinder by the British Museum". kavehfarrokh.org. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
- "La civilisation écrite sous l'empire d'Akkad". cartelen.louvre.fr. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
- "Livius - Cyrus Cylinder Translation". www.livius.org. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
- "Psalm 47:2 - BibleGateway". www.biblegateway.com. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- Rich, Tracey R. (1998). "Judaism 101–Common Prayers and Blessings". www.jewfaq.org. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- Yanli, Chen; Yuhong, Wu (2017). "The Names of the Leaders and Diplomats of Marḫaši and Related Men in the Ur III Dynasty". cdli.ucla.edu. Archived from the original on 20 January 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2019.