Edom

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Kingdom of Edom
)
"Edomite" redirects here. For the language, see Edomite language. For the pottery, see Edomite pottery. For other uses, see Edom (disambiguation).
Kingdom of Edom
𐤀𐤃𐤌
c. 13th century BC–c. 553 BC
Bozrah
Common languagesEdomite
Religion
Canaanite religion
History 
• Established
c. 13th century BC
• Conquered by the Babylonian king Nabonidus
c. 553 BC[1]
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Edom (/ˈiːdəm/;[2][3] Edomite: 𐤀𐤃𐤌 ʾDM; Hebrew: אֱדוֹם ʾĔḏōm, lit.: "red"; Akkadian: 𒌑𒁺𒈪 Údumi, 𒌑𒁺𒈬 Údumu;[4] Ancient Egyptian: jdwmꜥ)[5] was an ancient kingdom in Transjordan, located between Moab to the northeast, the Arabah to the west, and the Arabian Desert to the south and east.[6] Most of its former territory is now divided between present-day southern Jordan and Israel. Edom appears in written sources relating to the late Bronze Age and to the Iron Age in the Levant.

Edomites are related in several ancient sources including the list of the

Arab Nabataeans, who first appeared in the historical annals of the 4th century BC and had already established their own kingdom in what used to be Edom by the first half of the 2nd century BC.[6] More recent excavations show that the process of Edomite settlement in the southern parts of the Kingdom of Judah and parts of the Negev down to Timna had started already before the destruction of the kingdom by Nebuchadnezzar II in 587/86 BC, both by peaceful penetration and by military means and taking advantage of the already-weakened state of Judah.[7][8]

Once pushed out of their territory, the Edomites settled during the

Hasmoneans, and were incorporated into the Jewish population.[13] Other scholars believe that the assimilation was voluntary. [14]

Edom and Idumea are two related but distinct terms; they relate to a historically-contiguous population but to two separate, if adjacent, territories which the Edomites/Idumeans occupied in different periods of their history. The Edomites first established a kingdom ("Edom") in the southern area of modern-day

Mount Hebron) when Judah was first weakened and then destroyed by the Babylonians in the 6th century BC.[15][16]

Name

The

Tanakh describes the Edomites as descendants of Esau.[19]

History

Further information: History of Jordan
iA2d
W		 G20qmAxAst
jdwmꜥ

Edom[5]
in hieroglyphs

Era: New Kingdom
(1550–1069 BC)

The Edomites may have been connected with the Shasu and Shutu, nomadic raiders mentioned in Egyptian sources. Indeed, a letter from an Egyptian scribe at a border fortress in the Wadi Tumilat during the reign of Merneptah reports movement of nomadic "shasu-tribes of Edom" to watering holes in Egyptian territory.[20] The earliest Iron Age settlements—possibly copper mining camps—date to the 11th century BC.[21] Settlement intensified by the late 8th century BC and the main sites so far excavated have been dated between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. The last unambiguous reference to Edom is an Assyrian inscription of 667 BC. Edom ceased to exist as a state when it became conquered by Nabonidus in the 6th century BC.[22]

Edom is mentioned in

Nabataean origin, constituted the majority of the population of Western Judea, where they commingled with the Judaeans and adopted their customs.[25] A view not necessarily shared by modern scholarly works.[26][27][28][29]

The existence of the Kingdom of Edom was asserted by archaeologists led by Ezra Ben-Yosef and Tom Levy, by using a methodology called the

punctuated equilibrium model in 2019. Archaeologists mainly took copper samples from Timna Valley and Faynan in Jordan’s Arava valley dated to 1300-800 BC. According to the results of the analysis, the researchers thought that Pharaoh Shoshenk I of Egypt (the Biblical "Shishak"), who attacked Jerusalem in the 10th century BC, encouraged the trade and production of copper instead of destroying the region. Tel Aviv University professor Ben Yosef stated "Our new findings contradict the view of many archaeologists that the Arava was populated by a loose alliance of tribes, and they’re consistent with the biblical story that there was an Edomite kingdom here."[30][31][32]

Hebrew Bible

Map showing kingdom of Edom (in red) at its largest extent, c. 600 BC. Areas in dark red show the approximate boundary of classical-age Idumaea.

The Edomites' original country, according to the Hebrew Bible, stretched from the

seaports.[39]

Genesis 36:31-43 lists the kings of Edom "before any Israelite king reigned":

These are the kings who ruled in the land of Edom before a king ruled the children of Israel. And

Iram.[40]

The Hebrew word translated as leader of a clan is aluf, used solely to describe the Dukes of Edom and Moab, in the first five books of Moses. However beginning in the books of the later prophets the word is used to describe Judean generals, for example, in the prophecies of Zachariah twice (9:7, 12:5–6) it had evolved to describe Jewish captains, the word also is used multiple times as a general term for teacher or guide for example in Psalm 55:13.[41] Aluph as it is used to denote teach or guide from the Edomite word for Duke is used 69 times in the Tanakh.

If the account may be taken at face value, the kingship of Edom was, at least in early times, not

first book of Chronicles mentions both a king and chieftains.[44] Moses and the Israelite people twice appealed to their common ancestry and asked the king of Edom for passage through his land, along the "King's Highway", on their way to Canaan, but the king refused permission.[45] Accordingly, they detoured around the country because of his show of force[46] or because God ordered them to do so rather than wage war (Deuteronomy 2:4–6). The King of Edom did not attack the Israelites
, though he prepared to resist aggression.

Nothing further is recorded of the Edomites in the

King of Judah. It also states that the inhabitants of Mount Seir invaded Judea in conjunction with Ammon and Moab, and that the invaders turned against one another and were all destroyed (2 Chronicles 20:10–23). Edom revolted against Jehoram and elected a king of its own (2 Kings 8:20–22; 2 Chronicles 21:8). Amaziah attacked and defeated the Edomites, seizing Selah, but the Israelites never subdued Edom completely (2 Kings 14:7; 2 Chronicles 25:11–12
).

In the time of Nebuchadnezzar II the Edomites may have helped plunder Jerusalem and slaughter the Judaeans in 587 or 586 BCE (Psalms 137:7; Obadiah 1:11–14). Some believe that it is for this reason the prophets denounced Edom (Isaiah 34:5–8; Jeremiah 49:7–22; Obadiah passim). Evidence also suggests that at that time Edom may have engaged in a treaty betrayal of Judah.[50] The people of Edom would be dealt with during the Messiah's rulership, according to the prophets.[51] Despite this, many Edomites peacefully migrated to southern Judea, which continued even during the reign of Nabonidus.[52]Regarding the territory of Edom, the book of Jeremiah states that "no one will live there, nor will anyone of mankind reside in it".[53]

Although the Idumaeans controlled the lands to the east and south of the Dead Sea, their peoples were held in contempt by the Israelites. Hence the

halacha
were derived.

Classical Idumaea

Busaira (Bozra) archaeological site in modern-day Jordan, what used to be the capital of Edom

Persian period

According to ostraca from sites in Idumaea dating mainly to the 4th century BCE, a diverse population of Arabs, Edomites as well as Judahites and Phoenicians inhabited the area during the late Persian period.[57]

Compared to the neighboring Moabites and Ammonites, the name "Edom" completely disappeared from the area east of Arabah. The Qedarites controlled the territory, followed by the Nabateans, thus ensuring the end of Iron Age Edom. Strabo identifies Idumeans with the Nabateans who were expelled to southern Judea after committing sedition. However, there is evidence for cultural continuity between the Iron Age Edom and Idumea, based on settlement patterns and religious practices.[52]

Maccabean revolt

During the revolt of the

Hellenized Idumean is unknown. Some scholars maintain that the reference to Idumaea in that passage is an error altogether.[citation needed] Judas Maccabeus conquered their territory for a time around 163 BC.[58]

Conversion to Judaism

Around 110 BCE, Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus I conquered Idumaea. According to several ancient sources, including Josephus and Ptolemy, he forcibly converted them to Judaism,[59] and incorporated them into the Jewish nation:[60][43]

Hyrcanus also captured the Idumean cities of Adora and Marisa and after subduing all the Idumeans, permitted them to remain in their country as long as they had themselves circumcised and were willing to observe the laws of the Jews. And so, out of attachment to the land of their fathers, they submitted to circumcision and to make their manner of life conform in all other respects to that of the Jews. And from that time onward they have continued to be Jews.[61]

Some scholars dispute the claim of forced conversions and believe that the Idumeans voluntarily assimilated into Judean society. Forced conversions were rare in Near Eastern and Hellenistic societies, with some Idumeans retaining their native identity. Others contributed to religious innovations that were adopted in Pharisaical Judaism. In addition, it explains why Idumean territory was absorbed in Judea over one generation, compared to other non-Judean territories (e.g. Samaritan territories), which remained detached. Reasons for the rapid assimilation include their cultural affinity with Judaism, opposition to Hellenism and aniconic tendencies.[52]

Herodian dynasty

Herodian Dynasty along with Judean progenitors, that ruled Judea after the Roman conquest, was of Idumean origin.[62] Under Herod the Great, the Idumaea province was ruled for him by a series of governors, among whom were his brother Joseph ben Antipater, and his brother-in-law Costobarus
.

Overall, Herodian influence on Judea, Jerusalem and the Temple was significant. However, this was obsfucated by later variants of Second Temple Judaism and Rabbinic Judaism .

Jubilees and 4QMMT, which were of Essene, Hasidean or Sadducee origin.[64][65] These Jews did not openly express their views because Herod violently suppressed critics. [66]

Evie Gassner believed the Sages disparaged Herod because he supported the Sadducees, who opposed the Pharisees.[67]

Borders

Mount Hebron region, shortly after the demise of the kingdom of Judah and the Judean exile in the 6th-century BC.[15]

Strabo describes western Judea as being populated by Idumeans, who commingled with Judeans and adopted their customs.[70]

Archaeological records gleaned from Maresha, though largely of Idumaean origin, attest to the region being under the influences of Greek culture, as well as that of Nabatean/Arab, Phoenician, Palmyrene and Jewish culture.[71]

The

Jordanians in meeting Jesus by the Sea of Galilee.[72] The Mishnah refers to Rabbi Ishmael's dwelling place in Kfar Aziz as being "near to Edom."[73]

First Jewish–Roman War

By 66 CE, during the First Jewish–Roman War, the Zealot leader Simon bar Giora attacked the Jewish converts of Upper Idumaea, and brought near complete destruction to the surrounding villages and countryside in that region.[74] It was part of his wider plan to attack Jerusalem and seize authority for himself.[75]

According to

besieged the Temple.[76] Idumean zealotry arguably reflected their attempts to 'prove' their Jewishness.[66]

After the Jewish–Roman wars, the Idumaean people disappear from written history, though the geographical region of "Idumea" is still referred to at the time of Jerome.[43]

Religion

Further information: Canaanite religion
Edomite goddess figure in the Israel Museum

The nature of Edomite religion is largely unknown before their conversion to Judaism by the

El, Baal and 'Uzza.[13][78] In some Jewish tradition stemming from the Talmud, the descendants of Esau are the Romans (and to a larger extent, all Europeans).[79][80][81]

Juan Manuel Tebes argues that Quas is a similar god to Yahweh. Quas seems to have descended from a cultural heritage common between Edomites and Jews, with the worship of both the Edomite Quas and the God of the Israelites being described by Egyptians. Quas's popularity during the Persian and Hellenistic periods appears, according to Tebes, to have forced the purportedly pro-Yahwist authors of the Book of Chronicles to portray several Edomite persons as 'pious Levites'. Clues about their Edomite heritage appear to be hidden in their theophoric names.[82]

Josephus states that Costobarus, appointed by Herod to be governor of Idumea and Gaza, was descended from the priests of "the Koze, whom the Idumeans had formerly served as a god".[83]

Victor Sasson describes an Edomite text that paralles the Book of Job, which provides insight on the language, literature, and religion of Edom.[84]

Economy

The Kingdom of Edom drew much of its livelihood from the caravan trade between Egypt, the

balsam (used for perfume and temple incense in the ancient world) from the Dead Sea region.[citation needed
]

Khirbat en-Nahas is a large-scale copper-mining site excavated by archaeologist Thomas Levy in what is now southern Jordan. The scale of tenth-century mining on the site is regarded as evidence of a strong, centralized 10th century BC Edomite kingdom.[85]

See also

References

  1. ^ Levin, Yigal (2015). "The Formation of Idumean Identity". Aram. 27. London: 187–202.
  2. ^ "Edom". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. IPA
    -ified from «ē´dum»
  4. ^ a b Parpola, Simo (1970). Neo-Assyrian Toponyms. Kevaeler: Butzon & Bercker. pp. 364–365.
  5. ^ a b Gauthier, Henri (1925). Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques. Vol. 1. p. 126.
  6. ^ a b c d Negev & Gibson (ed.), 2001, Edom; Edomites, pp. 149–150
  7. ^ Prof. Itzhaq Beit-Arieh (December 1996). "Edomites Advance into Judah". Biblical Archaeology Review. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
  8. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1991.tb00701.x
    . Retrieved 8 December 2015.
  9. ^ Negev & Gibson (ed.), 2001, Idumea, pp. 239–240
  10. ^ Ben-Yosef (1979), p. 25
  11. ^ Charles Léon Souvay, ed. (1910). "Idumea". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
  12. ^ "Edom". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
  13. ^
    ISSN 2077-1444
    .
  14. ISSN 2077-1444
    .
  15. ^
    OCLC 745203905
    .
  16. JSTOR 27926503
    .
  17. ^ Genesis 25:25
  18. ^ Genesis 25:29–34
  19. ^ Genesis 36:9: This is the genealogy of Esau the father of the Edomites
  20. ^ Redford, Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times, Princeton Univ. Press, 1992. p.228, 318.
  21. ^ Crowell 2021, p. 47.
  22. ^ Tebes 2022, p. 651.
  23. ^ Müller, Asien und Europa, p. 135.
  24. ^ Ptolemy, "Geography," v. 16
  25. ^ Strabo, Geography Bk.16.2.34
  26. ^ "Herod | Biography & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-10-13.
  27. ISBN 9781136872891
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  28. ISBN 9781139434652
    .
  29. ISBN 9780884021155
    .
  30. ^ "Israeli researchers identify biblical kingdom of Edom - Israel News - Jerusalem Post". www.jpost.com. Retrieved 2019-09-23.
  31. ^ Amanda Borschel-Dan. "Bible-era nomadic Edomite tribesmen were actually hi-tech copper mavens". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 2019-09-23.
  32. PMID 31532811
    .
  33. ^ Deuteronomy 1:2; Deuteronomy 2:1–8
  34. ^ Judges 11:17–18; 2 Kings 3:8–9
  35. ^ Deuteronomy 2:13–18
  36. ^ Genesis 36:33; Isaiah 34:6, Isaiah 63:1, et al.
  37. S2CID 243304416
    .
  38. ^ 2 Kings 14:7
  39. ^ 1 Kings 9:26
  40. ^ Genesis 36:31–43
  41. ^ אַלּוּף
  42. ^ Gordon, Bruce R. "Edom (Idumaea)". Regnal Chronologies. Archived from the original on 2006-04-29. Retrieved 2006-08-04.
  43. ^
    LCCN 16014703. Archived from the original
    on 2007-09-21. Retrieved 2005-07-25.
  44. ^ 1 Chronicles 1:43–54
  45. ^ Numbers 20:14–20, King James Version 1611
  46. ^ Numbers 20:21
  47. Jewish Antiquities
    viii. 7, S 6
  48. ^ 2 Samuel 8:14
  49. ^ 2 Kings 3:9–26
  50. ^ Dykehouse, Jason (2013). "Biblical Evidence from Obadiah and Psalm 137 for an Edomite Treaty Betrayal of Judah in the Sixth Century B.C.E." Antiguo Oriente. 11: 75–122.
  51. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Numbers 24:14, Numbers 24:17-18, Isaiah 11:14, Amos 9:11-12 - New American Standard Bible". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2021-11-08.
  52. ^
    ISSN 2077-1444
    .
  53. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Jeremiah 49:17-18 - New American Standard Bible". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2021-06-29.
  54. ^ Psalms 60:8 and Psalms 108:9
  55. ^ Deuteronomy 23:8–9
  56. ^ Yevamot 76b
  57. ISBN 9781575065809
    .
  58. ^ Josephus, "Ant." xii. 8, §§ 1, 6
  59. ^ ib. xiii. 9, § 1; xiv. 4, § 4
  60. S2CID 162887617
    .
  61. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 13.257-58
  62. ISBN 9789004218512
    .
  63. ^ Levin, Yigal (2020). "The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism". Religions. 11 (10) – via MDPI.
  64. ^ McGuire, J. Amanda (2011). "Sacred Times: The Book of Jubilees at Qumran". Papers. 2 – via Digital Commons @ Andrews University.
  65. ^ Schiffman, Lawrence H., Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity, Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday) 1995.
  66. ^
    ISBN 9780199914456
    .
  67. ^ Gassner, Evie (2019). "How Jewish Was Herod?". TheTorah.com.
  68. JSTOR 26477573
    .
  69. Reland who cites in turn Tyrannius Rufinus in his Latin translation of Josephus
    ' The Jewish War (4.8.1.).
  70. ^ Strabo, Geography Bk.16.2.34
  71. ISBN 9783110544213
    .
  72. ^ Mark 3:8
  73. ^ Mishna Kilaim 6:4; Ketuvot 5:8
  74. ^ Josephus, De Bello Judaico (The Jewish War) IV, 514 (Wars of the Jews 4.9.3) and De Bello Judaico (The Jewish War) IV, 529 (Wars of the Jews 4.9.7)
  75. ^ Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Book IV
  76. ^ Josephus, The Jewish War iv. 4, § 5
  77. ^ Ahituv, Shmuel. Echoes from the Past: Hebrew and Cognate Inscriptions from the Biblical Period. Jerusalem, Israel: Carta, 2008, pp. 351, 354
  78. ISBN 9783110447118
    .
  79. ^ "Did the Edomite tribe Magdiel found Rome? | AskNoah.org". January 13, 2011.
  80. ^ "Edomites". in rabbinical sources, the word "Edom" was a code name for Rome
  81. ^ "Esau the Ancestor of Rome - TheTorah.com". www.thetorah.com. Retrieved 2023-09-06.
  82. ^ Tebes, Juan Manuel (2022). "Why the Bible Is Mute about Qos, the Edomite God". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on February 23, 2024.
  83. ^ Antiquities of the Jews, Book 15, chapter 7, section 9
  84. S2CID 170594788
    .
  85. National Geographic
    , December 2010.

Bibliography

External links

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