Kingdom of Gwynedd
Kingdom of Gwynedd Teyrnas Gwynedd (Welsh) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
401–1283 | |||||||||
Flag of Gwynedd (Aberffraw)
| |||||||||
Anthem: Llywelyn the Great | |||||||||
• 1253–1282 | Llywelyn II | ||||||||
• 1282–1283 | Dafydd III | ||||||||
Historical era | Middle Ages | ||||||||
401 | |||||||||
• Declaration of the Principality of Wales | 3 October 1283 | ||||||||
Population | |||||||||
• c. 1271 | 200,000[11] | ||||||||
Currency | ceiniog cyfreith ceiniog cwta[1][failed verification] | ||||||||
| |||||||||
Today part of | |||||||||
^ In Latin, Gwynedd was often referred to in official medieval charters and acts of the 13th century as Principatus Norwallia (Principality of North Wales). |
The Kingdom of Gwynedd (
Based in northwest
Welsh tradition credited the founding of Gwynedd to the Brittonic polity of
Etymology
The name Gwynedd is believed to be a borrowing from early Irish (reflective of Irish settlement in the area in antiquity), either cognate with the Old Irish ethnic name Féni, "Irish People", from Primitive Irish *weidh-n- "Forest People"/"Wild People" (from Proto-Indo-European *weydh- "wood, wilderness"), or (alternatively) Old Irish fían "war band", from Proto-Irish *wēnā (from Proto-Indo-European *weyH1- "chase, pursue, suppress").[22][23][24][25]
Ptolemy in the 1st century marked the Llŷn Peninsula as the "Promontory of the Gangani",[26] which is also a name he recorded in Ireland. It is theorised in the 1st century BC some of the Gangani tribe may have landed in what is now the Llŷn Peninsula and had driven out the Deceangli or the Ordovices tribe from that area either peacefully or by force. In the late and post-Roman eras, Irish from Leinster[19] may have arrived in Anglesey and elsewhere in northwest Wales with the name Llŷn derived from Laigin, an Old Irish form that means "Leinstermen, or simply Leinster."[27]
The 5th-century Cantiorix Inscription now in Penmachno church seems to be the earliest record of the name.[19] It is in memory of a man named Cantiorix, and the Latin inscription is Cantiorix hic iacit/Venedotis cives fuit/consobrinos Magli magistrati: "Cantiorix lies here. He was a citizen of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate".[19] The use of terms such as "citizen" and "magistrate" may be cited as evidence that Romano-British culture and institutions continued in Gwynedd long after the legions had withdrawn.[19]
History, background and familial descent
The background involving the Kingdom of Gwynedd starts with the
Examples of early settlement in Gwynedd are Bryn Eryr near Llansadwrn, Anglesey, now found at the St Fagans National Museum of History, and Garn Boduan, a Celtic hillfort on the Llŷn Peninsula.[35] Iron Age forts were being adapted until after the Roman conquest of Britain, 'Castle of Buan' (Garn Boduan) in Llŷn was recorded as being fortified until the 7th century.[36][37] During the Roman period, new roads and forts were constructed throughout the Roman empire and for centuries in Wales and England, Welsh examples include Caer Gybi (fort) on Anglesey, and Segontium in Caernarfon, Gwynedd.[38][39] The establishment of Christianity in Wales also gave rise to a new era; the Romans founded towns with churches and installed governors. During the centuries of sub-Roman Britain, new political structures were established.[40] The Brythonic Kingdom of Gwynedd was established in the 5th century, and it proved to be the most durable of these Brythonic states, surviving until the late 13th century.[13]
Boundaries and names emerging from the 1st millennium AD onwards are still being used today to define towns and counties of the region.
Gwynedd in the Early Middle Ages
Cunedda and his sons
The region became known as Venedotia in
"Early Welsh literature contains a wealth of stories seeking to explain place-names, and doubtless, the story is propaganda aimed at justifying the right of Cunedda and his descendants to territories beyond the borders of the original Kingdom of Gwynedd. That kingdom probably consisted of the two banks of the Menai Straits and the coast over towards the estuary of the River Conwy, the foundations upon which Cunedda's descendants created a more extensive realm."[19]
The inhabitants of Gwynedd remained conscious of their
Reverting to a more militaristic tribal society allowed the Welsh of Gwynedd to concentrate on those martial skills necessary for their very survival, and the Romano-Britons of western Britain did offer stiffer and ultimately successful resistance.[55] The region of Venedotia, however, had been under Roman military administration and included established Gaelic settlements, and the civilian element there was less extensive, perhaps facilitating technological loss.[citation needed]
In the post-Roman period, the earliest rulers of Wales and Gwynedd may have exerted authority over regions no larger than the
Other evidence supports Nennius's claim that a leader came to North Wales and brought the region a measure of stability [57] although an Irish Gaelic element remained until the mid-5th century. Cunedda's heir Einion Yrth ap Cunedda defeated the remaining Gaelic Irish on Anglesey by 470, while his son, Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion, appears to have consolidated the realm during the time of relative peace following the Battle of Badon, where the Anglo-Saxons were defeated. During that peace, he established a mighty kingdom. After Cadwallon, Gwynedd appears to have held a pre-eminent position among the petty Cambrian states in the post-Roman period.[citation needed] The great-grandson of Cunedda, Maelgwn Hir (Maelgwn the Tall),[53][58][59] was regarded as an able military leader, impetuous and generous.[60] There are several legends about his life concerning either his own trickery and craftiness[61] or, on the other hand, miracles performed against him by Christian saints.[62] He is attributed in some old stories as hosting the first Eisteddfod,[63] and he is also one of five Celtic British kings castigated for their sins by the contemporary Christian writer Gildas (who referred to him as Maglocunus, meaning 'Prince-Hound' in Brittonic),[64] written in the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Maelgwn was curiously described as "the dragon of the island" by Gildas which was possibly a title, but explicitly as the most powerful of the five named British kings. "[Y]ou the last I write of but the first and greatest in evil, more than many in ability but also in malice, more generous in giving but also more liberal in sin, strong in war but stronger to destroy your soul."[65]
Maelgwn eventually died from the plague in 547,[60] leaving a succession crisis in his wake. His son-in-law, Elidyr Mwynfawr of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, claimed the throne and invaded Gwynedd to displace Maelgwn's son, Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn. Elidyr was killed in the attempt,[66] but his death was then avenged by his relatives, who ravaged the coast of Arfon. Rhun counter-attacked and exacted the same penalty on the lands of his foes in what is now South and Central Scotland.[67] The long distances these armies travelled suggests they were moving across the Irish Sea, but, because almost all of what is now northern England was at this point (c. 550) under Brittonic rule, it is possible that his army marched to Strathclyde overland. Rhun returned to Gwynedd, and the rest of his reign was for the majority uneventful until the relatives of Elidir renewed their aggressions against Rhun who was killed in the conflict.[citation needed] He was succeeded by his son or in some accounts nephew Beli ap Rhun in c. 586.[68]
On the accession of Beli's son
Cadwallon ap Cadfan
The
[H]e neither spared the female sex, nor the innocent age of children, but with savage cruelty put them to tormenting deaths, ravaging all their country for a long time, and resolving to cut off all the race of the English within the borders of Britain.
Despite the war and 14 battles undertaken by the allied forces of Gwynedd and Mercia against Northumbria, of which the chief one was the
Rhodri the Great and Aberffraw primacy
During the later part of the 9th and 10th centuries, the coastal areas of Gwynedd, particularly Anglesey, were coming under increasing attack by the
This "stranger" who became the next King of Gwynedd was Merfyn "Frych" (Merfyn "the Freckled").[84] When, however, Merfyn Frych's pedigree is examined – and to the Welsh pedigree meant everything – he seems not a stranger but a direct descendant of the ancient ruling line. He was the son of Gwriad, the contemporaneous King of Mann from the Isle of Man and depending on the source either son or husband of Essyllt daughter of Cynan Dindaethwy a former King of Gwynedd. The most ancient genealogical sources agree that Merfyn was the son of Essyllt,[85] heiress and cousin of the aforementioned Hywel ap Caradog, last of the ruling House of Cunedda in Gwynedd, and that Merfyn's male line went back to the Hen Ogledd to Llywarch Hen,[84] a first cousin of Urien and thus a direct descendant of Coel Hen. Thus the House of Cunedda and the new House of Aberffraw, as Merfyn's descendants came to be known, shared Coel Hen as a common ancestor, although the House of Cunedda traced their line through Gwawl his daughter and wife of Cunedda.[86]
Merfyn married
When Rhodri died in 878
From the successes of Rhodri and the seniority of Anarawd among his sons the Aberffraw family claimed primacy over all other Welsh lords including the powerful kings of Powys and Deheubarth.[94][95][h] In The History of Gruffudd ap Cynan, written in the late 12th century,[96][97] the family asserted its rights as the senior line of descendants from Rhodri the Great who had conquered most of Wales during his lifetime. Gruffudd ap Cynan's biography was first written in Latin and intended for a wider audience outside Wales. The significance of this claim was that the Aberffraw family owed nothing to the English king for its position in Wales and that they held authority in Wales "by absolute right through descent," wrote historian John Davies.[94]
The House of Aberffraw was displaced in 942 by
Between 986 and 1081 the throne of Gwynedd was often in contention with the rightful kings frequently displaced by rivals within and outside the realm. One of these, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, originally from Powys, displaced the Aberffraw line from Gwynedd making himself ruler there, and by 1055 was able to make himself king of most of Wales.[103] He became powerful enough to present a real menace to England and annexed some neighbouring parts after several victories over English armies. Eventually, he was defeated by Harold Godwinson in 1063 and later killed by his own men in a deal to secure peace with England.[104] Bleddyn ap Cynfyn and his brother Rhiwallon of the Mathrafal dynasty of Powys, Gruffudd's maternal half-brothers, came to terms with Harold and took over the rule of Gwynedd and Powys.[105]
Shortly after the
Gwynedd in the High Middle Ages
Gruffudd ap Cynan
The Aberffraw dynasty suffered various
Shortly after the Battle of Mynydd Carn in 1081, Gruffudd was lured into a trap with the promise of an alliance but seized by Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester, in an ambush near Corwen.[111][113] Earl Hugh claimed the Perfeddwlad up to the River Clwyd (the commotes of Tegeingl and Rhufoniog; the modern counties of Denbighshire, Flintshire, and Wrexham) as part of Chester, and viewed the restoration of the Aberffraw family in Gwynedd as a threat to his own expansion into Wales. The lands west of the Clwyd were intended for his cousin Robert of Rhuddlan, and their advance extended to the Llŷn Peninsula by 1090. By 1094 almost the whole of Wales was occupied by Norman forces. However, although they erected many castles, Norman control in most regions of Wales was tenuous at best. Motivated by local anger over the "gratuitously cruel" invaders, and led by the historic ruling houses, Welsh control over the greater part of Wales was restored by 1100.[111]
In an effort to further consolidate his control over Gwynedd, Earl Hugh of Chester had
Gruffudd escaped imprisonment in Chester and slew Robert of Rhuddlan in a beachside battle at Deganwy on 3 July 1093.[113] Gruffudd recovered Gwynedd by 1095, and by 1098 Gruffudd allied with Cadwgan ap Bleddyn of the Mathrafal house of Powys, their traditional dynastic rivalry notwithstanding. Gruffudd and Cadwgan led the Welsh resistance to the Norman occupation in the north and mid-Wales. However, by 1098 Earl Hugh of Chester and Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury advanced their army to the Menai Strait, with Gruffudd and Cadwgan regrouping on defensible Anglesey, where they planned to make retaliatory strikes from their island fortress. Gruffudd hired a Norse fleet from a settlement in Ireland to patrol the Menai and prevent the Norman army from crossing; however, the Normans were able to pay off the fleet to instead ferry them to Môn. Betrayed, Gruffudd and Cadwgan were forced to flee to Ireland in a skiff.[110][111]
The Normans landed on Anglesey, and their furious 'victory celebrations' which followed were exceptionally violent, with rape and carnage committed by the Norman army left unchecked. The earl of Shrewsbury had an elderly priest mutilated and made the church of Llandyfrydog a kennel for his dogs.[110]
During the 'celebrations' a Norse fleet led by Magnus Barefoot, King of Norway,[k] appeared off the coast at Puffin Island, and in the battle that followed, known as the Battle of Anglesey Sound, Magnus shot dead the earl of Shrewsbury with an arrow to the eye. The Norse left as suddenly and as mysteriously as they had arrived, leaving the Norman army weakened and demoralized.[110]
The Norman army retired to England, leaving a Welshman,
In late 1098 Gruffudd and Cadwgan landed in Wales and recovered Angelsey without much difficulty, with Hervé the Breton fleeing Bangor for safety in England. Over the course of the next three years, Gruffudd was able to recover upper Gwynedd to the Conwy, defeating Hugh, Earl of Chester. In 1101, after Earl Hugh's death, Gruffudd and Cadwgan came to terms with England's new king, Henry I, who was consolidating his own authority and also eager to come to terms. In the negotiations which followed Henry I recognised Gruffudd's ancestral claims of Angelsey, Llŷn, Dunoding (Eifionydd and Ardudwy) and Arllechwedd, being the lands of upper Gwynedd to the Conwy which were already firmly in Gruffudd's control. Cadwgan regained Ceredigion, and his share of the family inheritance in Powys, from the new earl of Shrewsbury, Robert of Bellême.[110]
With the settlement reached between Henry I and Gruffudd, and other Welsh lords, the dividing of Wales between Pura Wallia, the lands under Welsh control; and Marchia Wallie, Welsh lands under Norman control, came into existence. Author and historian John Davies notes that the border shifted on occasion, "in one direction and in the other", but remained more or less stable for almost the next two hundred years.[120]
After generations of incessant warfare, Gruffudd began the reconstruction of Gwynedd, intent on bringing stability to his country. According to Davies, Gruffudd sought to give his people the peace to "plant their crops in the full confidence that they would be able to harvest them".
Alarmed by Gruffudd's growing influence and authority in north Wales, and on pretext that Gruffudd sheltered rebels from Rhos against Chester, Henry I launched a campaign against Gwynedd and Powys in 1116, which included a vanguard commanded by King Alexander I of Scotland.[110][111] While Owain ap Cadwgan of Ceredigion sought refuge in Gwynedd's mountains, Maredudd ap Bleddyn of Powys made peace with the English king as the Norman army advanced.[110] There were no battles or skirmishes fought in the face of the vast host brought into Wales; rather, Owain and Gruffudd entered into truce negotiations. Owain ap Cadwgan regained royal favour relatively easily. However, Gruffudd was forced to render homage and fealty and pay a heavy fine, though he lost no land or prestige.[121]
The invasion left a lasting impact on Gruffudd, who by 1116 was in his 60s and with failing eyesight. For the remainder of his life, while Gruffudd continued to rule in Gwynedd, his sons Cadwallon, Owain, and Cadwaladr, would lead Gwynedd's army after 1120.[110] Gruffudd's policy, which his sons would execute and later rulers of Gwynedd adopted, was to recover Gwynedd's primacy without blatantly antagonising the English crown.[110][121]
The Expansion of Gwynedd
In 1120 a minor border war between
On the death of Einion ap Cadwgan, lord of
In 1136 a campaign against the Normans was launched from Gwynedd in revenge for the execution of
When their father Gruffudd died in 1137, the brothers Owain and Cadwaladr were on a second campaign in Ceredigion and took the castles of Ystrad Meurig, Lampeter (Stephen's Castle), and Castell Hywell (Humphries Castle)[122] Gruffudd ap Cynan left a more stable realm than had hitherto existed in Gwynedd for more than 100 years. No foreign army was able to cross the Conwy into upper Gwynedd. The stability of Gruffudd's long reign allowed Gwynedd's Welsh to plan for the future without fear that home and harvest would "go to the flames" from invaders.[124]
Settlements became more permanent, with buildings of stone replacing timber structures. Stone churches, in particular, were built across Gwynedd, with so many limewashed that "Gwynedd was bespangled with them as is the firmament with stars". Gruffudd had built stone churches at his royal manors, and Lloyd suggests Gruffudd's example led to the rebuilding of churches with stone in Penmon, Aberdaron, and Towyn in the Norman fashion.[124]
Gruffudd promoted the primacy of the
Owain Gwynedd
Owain ap Gruffudd (Owain Gwynedd c. 1100 – 23 or 28 November 1170[125][126][127]) succeeded his father to the greater portion of Gwynedd in accordance with Welsh law, the Cyfraith Hywel, the Laws of Hywel; and became known as Owain Gwynedd to differentiate him from another Owain ap Gruffudd, the Mathrafal ruler of Powys, known as Owain Cyfeiliog.[128] Cadwaladr, Gruffudd's youngest son, inherited the commote of Aberffraw on Ynys Môn (now Anglesey), and the recently conquered Meirionydd and northern Ceredigion--i.e., Ceredigion between the rivers Aeron and the Dyfi.[129]
By 1141 Cadwaladr and Madog ap Maredudd of Powys led a Welsh vanguard as an ally of the Earl of Chester in the Battle of Lincoln, and joined in the rout which made Stephen of England a prisoner of Empress Matilda for a year Owain, however, did not participate in the battle, keeping the majority of Gwynedd's army at home.[130][l]
Owain and Cadwaladr came to blows in 1143 when Cadwaladr was implicated in the murder of King Anarawd ap Gruffudd of Deheubarth, Owain's ally and future son-in-law, on the eve of Anarawd's wedding to Owain's daughter.[131][132] Owain followed a diplomatic policy of binding other Welsh rulers to Gwynedd through dynastic marriages, and Cadwaladr's border dispute and murder of Anarawd threatened Owain's efforts and credibility.[123] As ruler of Gwynedd, Owain stripped Cadwaladr of his lands, with Owain's son Hywel dispatched to Ceredigion, where he burned Cadwaladr's castle at Aberystwyth. Cadwaladr fled to Ireland and hired a Norse fleet from Dublin, bringing the fleet to Abermenai to compel Owain to reinstate him.[131] This same fleet of ships would be considered a sizeable one to be able to face the fleet of Stephen, King of England, as well as The Irish and Scottish at Abermenai Point prior in 1142.[133] Taking advantage of the brotherly strife, and perhaps with the tacit understanding of Cadwaladr, the marcher lords mounted incursions into Wales.[132] Realizing the wider ramifications of the war before him, Owain and Cadwaladr came to terms and reconciled, with Cadwaladr restored to his lands.[131][132] Peace between the brothers held until 1147, when an unrecorded event occurred which led Owain's sons Hywel and Cynan to drive Cadwaladr out of Meirionydd and Ceredigion, with Cadwaladr retreating to Môn.[131] Again an accord was reached, with Cadwaladr retaining Aberffraw until a more serious breach occurred in 1153 when he was forced into exile in England, where his wife was the sister of Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Hertford and the niece of Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester.[131][132]
In 1146 news reached Owain that his favoured eldest son and heir, Rhun ab Owain Gwynedd, died. Owain was overcome with grief, falling into a deep depression from which none could console him until news reached him that Mold Castle in Tegeingl had fallen to Gwynedd, "[reminding Owain] that he had still a country for which to live," wrote historian Sir John Edward Lloyd.[134]
Between 1148 and 1151, Owain I of Gwynedd fought against Madog ap Maredudd of Powys, Owain's son-in-law, and against the Earl of Chester for control of
Having spent three years consolidating his authority in the vast Angevin Empire, Henry II of England resolved on a strategy against Owain I of Gwynedd by 1157. By now, Owain's enemies had joined Henry II's camp, enemies such as his wayward brother Cadwaladr and in particular the support of Madog of Powys.[m] Henry II raised his feudal host and marched into Wales from Chester. Owain positioned himself and his army at Dinas Basing (Basingwerk), barring the road to Rhuddlan, setting up a trap in which Henry II would send his army along the direct road on the coast, while he crossed through the woods to out-flank Owain. The King of Gwynedd anticipated this, and dispatched his sons Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd and Cynan into the woods with an army, catching Henry II unaware.[136][137]
In the melee which followed Henry II might have been slain had not Roger de Clare, 2nd Earl of Hertford, rescued the king. Henry II retreated and made his way back to his main army, by now slowly advancing towards Rhuddlan. Not wishing to engage the Norman army directly, Owain repositioned himself first at St. Asaph, then further west, clearing the road for Henry II to enter into Rhuddlan "ingloriously".[136] Once in Rhuddlan Henry II received word that his naval expedition had failed, as instead of meeting Henry II at Degannwy or Rhuddlan, it had gone to plunder Anglesey, this resulted in the Battle of Ewloe, and has since been commemorated with a plaque 850 years after the battle of 1157, during 2007.[138]
In a later letter to the Byzantine emperor, Henry probably recalled these experiences when he wrote, "A people called Welsh, so bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they do not fear to encounter an armed force, being ready to shed their blood in defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives for renown."[139]
The naval expedition was led by Henry II's maternal uncle (Empress Matilda's half-brother),
Owain I of Gwynedd, "ever prudent and sagacious", recognised that he needed time to further consolidate power, and agreed to the terms. Owain was to render homage and fealty to the King, and resign Tegeingl and Rhuddlan to Chester, and restore Cadwaladr to his possessions in Gwynedd.[136]
The death of Madog ap Meredudd of Powys in 1160 opened an opportunity for Owain I of Gwynedd to further press Gwynedd's influence at the expense of Powys.[140][7][n] However, Owain continued to further Gwynedd's expansion without rousing the English crown, maintaining his 'prudent policy' of Quieta non-movere (translated from Latin - do not move settled things).[o] It was a policy of outward conciliation while masking his own consolidation of authority. To further demonstrate his goodwill, in 1160 Owain handed over to the English crown the fugitive Einion Clud. By 1162 Owain was in possession of the Powys cantref of Cyfeiliog, and its castle, Tafolwern; and ravaged another Powys cantref, Arwystli, slaying its lord, Hywel ab Ieuaf.[140] Owain's strategy was in sharp contrast to Rhys ap Gruffudd, King of Deheubarth, who in 1162 rose in open revolt against the Normans in south Wales, drawing Henry II back to England from the continent.[141]
In 1163 Henry II quarrelled with Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, causing growing divisions between the king's supporters and the archbishop's supporters. With discontent mounting in England, Owain of Gwynedd joined with Rhys ap Gruffudd of Deheubarth in a second grand Welsh revolt against Henry II.[140][142] England's king, who only the prior year had pardoned Rhys ap Gruffudd for his 1162 revolt, assembled a vast host against the allied Welsh, with troops drawn from all over the Angevin empire assembling in Shrewsbury, and with the Norse of Dublin paid to harass the Welsh coast.[140] While his army gathered on the Welsh frontier, Henry II left for the continent to negotiate a truce with France and Flanders to not disturb his peace while campaigning in Wales.[143]
However, when Henry II returned to England he found that the war had already begun, with Owain's son Dafydd raiding Angevin positions in Tegeingl, exposing the castles of Rhuddlan and Basingwerk to "serious dangers", wrote Lloyd. Henry II rushed to north Wales for a few days to shore up defences there, before returning to his main army now gathering in Oswestry.[143]
The vast host gathered before the allied Welsh principalities represented the largest army yet assembled for their conquest, a circumstance which further drew the Welsh allies into a closer confederacy, wrote Lloyd.[143] With Owain I of Gwynedd the overall battle commander, and with his brother Cadwaladr as his second, Owain assembled the Welsh host at Corwen in the vale of Edeyrion where he could best resist Henry II's advance.[143]
The Angevin army advanced from Oswestry into Wales crossing the mountains towards
In frustration, Henry II had twenty-two Welsh hostages mutilated; the sons of Owain's supporters and allies, including two of Owain's own sons. In addition to his failed campaign in Wales, Henry's mercenary Norse navy, which he had hired to harass the Welsh coast, turned out to be too few for use and were disbanded without engagement.[143]
Henry II's Welsh campaign was a complete failure, with the king abandoning all plans for the conquest of Wales, returning to his court in Anjou and not returning to England for another four years.[143] Lloyd wrote:
It is true that [Henry II] did not cross swords with [Owain I], but the elements had done their work for [the Welsh]; the stars in their courses had fought against the pride of England and humbled it to the very dust. To conquer a land which was defended, not merely by the arms of its valiant and audacious sons, but also by tangled woods and impassable bogs, by piercing winds and pitiless storms of rain, seemed a hopeless task, and Henry resolved to no longer attempt it.[143]
Owain expanded his international diplomatic offensive against Henry II by sending an embassy to Louis VII of France in 1168, led by Arthur of Bardsey, Bishop of Bangor (1166–1177), who was charged with negotiating a joint alliance against Henry II. With Henry II distracted by his widening quarrel with Thomas Becket, Owain's army recovered Tegeingl for Gwynedd by 1169.[142]
Lloyd quotes:[125] "The praises so repeatedly accorded to his many personal qualities by contemporary poets, and indeed by several public figures who could not have been predisposed in his favour, have so genuine a tone about them that the progressive trends in all the arts of peace and war discerned in 12th century Wales, it must be concluded, were in large measure due to the fostering genius of ' Owain the Great.'"
In his later reign Owain I was styled princeps Wallensium, Latin for the Prince of the Welsh, a title of substance given his leadership of the Welsh and victory against the English king, wrote historian Dr. John Davies.[144] Additionally, Owain commissioned the Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan, the biography of his father in which Owain firmly asserted his primacy over other Welsh rulers by "absolute right through descent" from Rhodri the Great, according to Davies.[94] Owain I was the eldest male descendant of Rhodri the Great through paternal descent.[citation needed]
The adoption of the title prince (Latin princeps, Welsh tywysog), rather than the king (Latin rex, Welsh brenin), did not mean a
Civil war, usurpation 1170 – 1195, and the Prince of Wales
Welsh manuscripts and Annals state the events which unfolded during the end of the 12th century. This story of the Royal court of Gwynedd suffering an uprising stems from the Norman invasion of Wales a century prior to the civil strife of Owain Gwynedd and his immediate family. The internal wranglings for the crown of Gwynedd began with two sons, Rhun ab Owain Gwynedd and Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd, who were illegitimate, by Owain's Irish wife Pyfog.[126] Owain and his father, Gruffudd ap Cynan, both had a Norse-Irish connection in their immediate family and would have used this allegiance to their advantage, especially Gruffudd who hired and army fleets of ships to invade North Wales himself.[109][126][q] In 1146, Hywel and Cadell ap Gruffydd of Deheubarth had combined their forces to battle against invading Normans who had built castles in west Wales, they took Carmarthen, Llanstephan, and Wiston castles.[98][r]
Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd duly succeeded his father for a short-lived term during 1170.[98][146] Due to the Norman invasion of Wales, the realm was in civil war, [s] Princess-Dowager (wife of Owain Gwynedd) Cristin verch Goronwy who promoted her own son Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd (Dafydd I/ David I) as Prince of Gwynedd ahead of Hywel and any other senior son of Owain Gwynedd. Dafydd I made his move, and within a few months of his succession, Hywel was overthrown and killed at the Battle of Pentraeth in 1171.[98][146][147][148]
Due to splinter factions, the Kingdom's royal family began to move away from Gwynedd, it is
The following year he expelled all his remaining family rivals and made himself master of all Gwynedd and in 1175, Dafydd I imprisoned his brother Rhodri. During a revolt in 1173, Dafydd I adhered to Henry II as an ally, and it was agreed that Dafydd I would marry Emma of Anjou, who was Henry's half-sister, and would receive the manor of Ellesmere as dowry.[153][146]
All this was done, as the
His brother Rhodri had a more eventful time and fell out with the descendants of Cynan. They acted against Rhodri in 1190 and drove him out of Gwynedd altogether. Rhodri fled to the safety of the Isle of Man only to be briefly reinstated in 1193 with the assistance of
Dafydd Ist had a nemesis in his nephew
Prince of Wales (de facto)
Llywelyn I, the Great
See also
Llywelyn ab Iorwerth (1173 – 11 April 1240), later known as Llywelyn the Great (Llywelyn I),
During 1220 – 1230, Llywelyn bolstered his claim to the Kingship of Gwynedd by reinforcing his borders with castles being built around the Kingdom of Gwynedd,
Llywelyn followed the
Prince Dafydd II
Prince Dafydd II (
With his main rival dead, Dafydd formed an alliance with other Welsh rulers and began a campaign against the English occupation of parts of Wales, all the while communicating with Pope Innocent IV in the Vatican City, Rome, talking about the powers bestowed on him by his predecessors as the ruler of Gwynedd.[citation needed] After savage fighting, the campaign was successful, however, Llywelyn's former seneschal Sir Tudur ap Ednyfed Fychan was captured by Henry III's forces in September 1245 in the battle against Dafydd II, yet Tudur was released in 1247 after swearing fealty to the King of England.[47] Dafydd II died a sudden and natural death on 25 February 1246, this brought a halt to the succession crisis which was fuelling the wars, his widow Isabella de Braose returned to England, living in Haverford, she died 2 years later.[154][156][177]
Prince Llywelyn II, the Last
Prince Llywelyn II (Welsh: Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf, lit. 'Llywelyn, Our Last Leader', Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, 1223 – 11 December 1282) was living in Gwynedd at the time of his succession to the throne and had fought alongside his uncle Dafydd II during the last campaign of his reign.[156] This gave him an advantage over his elder brother Owain who had been imprisoned in England with his father since 1242. Owain returned to Gwynedd from England, immediately after the news of the death of Prince Dafydd the IInd.[citation needed] Llywelyn and Owain were able to come to an agreement during an arranged peace accord by King Henry III of England, the Treaty of Woodstock, they were to share a realm west of Conwy, the treaty only lasted 8 years.[156][179]
The younger brother of Llywelyn II was Dafydd III, who had come of age by 14 and was invited by Henry III to pay homage in 1253. But in the spirit of his ancestors, he went to battle with his brother by forming an alliance with their other brother Owain and fought at the Battle of Bryn Derwin where they met with respective armies.[180] Llywelyn II in victory imprisoned his brothers Owain (until 1277), and Dafydd III for around a years time, Dafydd III eventually gained favour by 1277 working in conjunction with the Crown of England by gaining land on the northern border of England and Wales, Dafydd III married Elizabeth Ferrers and had offspring, while Owain was given the title Lord of Llŷn. Llywelyn was seen as a figurehead for the new state of Wales but had to coordinate with the newly formed Norman dynasty neighbouring to the east of Gwynedd, this was formalised with the Treaty of Montgomery later in 1267.[156][179][180]
With his brothers out of contention, Llyewlyn II was the sole ruler and this allowed for over a decade of unbroken military success, aided by the weakness of the Crown of England and the support of his seneschal
Succession would continue with a new
Prince Dafydd III
After generations of civil strife in Gwynedd, it was Dafydd ap Gruffydd (David III, 11 July – 3 October 1283) named Dafydd III, the grandson of Llywelyn the Great who was next to gain the Prince of Wales title.[154][180][185] From the offset it was Dafydd III who was immersed in Royal life representing the Welsh royal family. During 1253, Dafydd III attended an event and paid homage to the English court with Queen Eleanor, and Richard of Cornwall, as Henry III was in Gascony.[185] That era however was the starting point for military campaigns against his brother Llywelyn II from 1255, Llywelyn II jailed him for a year after the battle of Bryn Derwin. Dafydd III 1263 revolted against Llywelyn II once more, this time failing badly enough to flee to England, and a year later was offered the lands of the English rebel Baron Boteler after the battle of Evesham during an English civil war. Dafydd III had joined the English court life with Henry III and was in England until 1267. Again it was another Pope, Ottobuono, Adrian V who negotiated between the Royal families of England and Wales, peace ensued in Wales for another 6 years when Dafydd III was councillor to his brother, the Prince of Wales. Peace ensues until another coup is formed involving Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn Prince of Powys (whose father was arrested by King John), and falls apart due to severe storms. Dafydd III was forced to flee to England once more, this time pledging allegiance to King Edward I in 1274, and is decorated a knight and considered a friend. Years later in 1277, Dafydd III returns to haunt Wales accompanying Edward I, and on 16 August an agreement of peace is made as to how to share the spoils of war, by 10 November Llywelyn I submits to the English Crown at the Treaty of Aberconwy. The lands of Snowdonia, Anglesey, and Penllyn (cantref) are shared amongst the Princes and a dowry is given to Dafydd III, along with an estate in Cheshire and a consented marriage to the daughter of a former adversary, William de Ferrers the 5th Earl of Derby.[185]
Later in his life, after returning to Wales, Dafydd III changes alliance once again and continues to fight against the English Crown at risk of being a traitor. The Welsh courts had kept the support of Goronowy ap Heilin, the seneschal of Gwynedd who also supported his brother Llywelyn II, Goronwy was the Lord of
Dafydd III, like his brothers had incurred the wrath of the English forces, the Norman army encircled Snowdonia and starved the Welsh people, Dafydd III was soon moving desperately from one fort to another as effective resistance was systematically crushed.
"The last months saw inward disintegration as well as submission to superior force. Nevertheless, Goronwy ap Heilin had committed himself to the struggle and died in rebellion, alongside the disinherited princes who stood with Dafydd ap Gruffudd in the last springtime of the principality of Wales, diehards who knew that theirs was not the heroism of a new beginning but the ultimate stand of the very last cohort clutching the figment of the political order that they had once been privileged to know."[186]
On 21 June 1283, Dafydd III was captured in the uplands above Abergwyngregyn close to
End of Independence
Following the death of Llywelyn II in 1282, and the execution of his brother Dafydd III the following year, eight centuries of independent rule by the House of Gwynedd came to an end, and the kingdom, which had long been one of the final holdouts to total English domination of Wales, was annexed to England. The remaining important members of the ruling house were all arrested and imprisoned for the remainder of their lives.[180][190] Under the terms of the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 Wales was broken up and re-organised into six shires. The Snowdonia district in Gwynedd was made into three settlements, creating the counties of Anglesey, Carnarvonshire, Merionethshire, and the rest of Wales split beyond the Rivers Dee and Conwy, making Denbighshire and Flintshire in North Wales, and Cardigan and Carmarthen to the south of Wales.[191]
The Pura Walia was the new definition for the Welsh
There were many Gwynedd-based rebellions after 1284 with varying degrees of success with most being led by peripheral members of the old royal house. In particular the rebellions of
The title "Prince of Wales" was recreated after Llywelyn II, Prince Edward (later
Military
According to Sir John Edward Lloyd, the challenges of campaigning in Wales were exposed during the 20-year Norman invasion. If a defender could bar any road, control any river-crossing or mountain pass, and control the coastline around Wales, then the risks of extended campaigning in Wales were too great.[110]
The Welsh method of warfare during the reign of Henry II is described by Gerald of Wales in his work Descriptio Cambriae written c. 1190:[139]
Their mode of fighting consists in chasing the enemy or in retreating. This light-armed people, relying more on their activity than on their strength, cannot struggle for the field of battle, enter into close engagement, or endure long and severe actions...though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are ready to resume the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss, nor by their dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not display great fortitude in open engagements and regular conflicts, yet they harass the enemy by ambuscades and nightly sallies. Hence, neither oppressed by hunger or cold, not fatigued by martial labours, nor despondent in adversity, but ready, after a defeat, to return immediately to action, and again endure the dangers of war.
--The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis translated by Sir Richard Colt-Hoare (1894), p.511[139]
The Welsh were revered for the skills of their bowmen. Additionally, the Welsh learned from their Norman rivals. During the generations of warfare and close contact with the Normans, Gruffudd ap Cynan and other Welsh leaders learned the arts of knighthood and adapted them for Wales. By Gruffudd's death in 1137, Gwynedd could field hundreds of heavy well-armed cavalry as well as their traditional bowmen and infantry.[110]
They make use of light arms, which do not impede their agility, small coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances, helmets and shields, and more rarely greaves plated with iron. The higher class go to battle mounted on swift and generous steeds, which their country produces; but the greater part of the people fight on foot, on account of the marshy nature and unevenness of the soil. The horsemen, as their situation or occasion requires, willingly serve as infantry, in attacking or retreating; and they either walk bare-footed, or make use of high shoes, roughly constructed with untanned leather. In time of peace, the young men, by penetrating the deep recesses of the woods, and climbing the tops of mountains, learn by practice to endure fatigue through day and night..
--The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis translated by Sir Richard Colt-Hoare (1894), p.491[139]
In the end, Wales was defeated militarily by the improved ability of the English navy to blockade or seize areas essential for agricultural production such as Anglesey. With control of the Menai Strait, an invading army could regroup on Anglesey; without control of the Menai an army could be stranded there; and any occupying force on Anglesey could deny the vast harvest of the island to the Welsh.[111]
Lack of food would force the disbandment of any large Welsh force besieged within the mountains.
Administration
In early times Gwynedd (or Venedotia) may have been ruled from Chester, which is shown in the subsidiary title of the current Prince of Wales, Earl of Chester.[198] After the Battle of Chester in 613 when the city fell to the Anglo-Saxons the royal court moved west to the stronghold at Deganwy Castle near modern Conwy.[4] This site was destroyed by lightning in 812, rebuilt and destroyed again by Saxons in 822. Afterwards Aberffraw on Anglesey became the principal power base, with exceptions such as Gruffydd ap Llywelyn's court at Rhuddlan.[203][17][204] However, as the English fleet became more powerful and particularly after the Norman colonisation of Ireland began it became indefensible and from about 1200 until 1283,[citation needed] at Abergwyngregyn or simply called just "Aber" (its anglicised shortened form adopted by the Crown of England after the conquest) was the new family home of the 'Lord of Snowdown' on the banks of the menai Strait.[8][205] Joan, Lady of Wales, died there in 1237; Dafydd ap Llywelyn in 1246; Eleanor de Montfort, Lady of Wales, wife of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales ("Tywysog Cymru" in modern Welsh), on 19 June 1282, giving birth to a daughter, Gwenllian. The royal home was occupied and expropriated by the English Crown in early 1283.[206][207][208]
The traditional sphere of Aberffraw's influence in north Wales included the
After the Norman conquest, the residents of Llanfaes were moved to make way for Beaumaris Castle on Anglesey. The newly built Llys Rhosyr replaced the now abandoned Llys Aberffraw was one of 3 main courts on Anglesey, only due to a sandstorm in 1332 the Llys also became disused and unattended until excavations in the 20th century. The courts (Welsh: Llysoedd) were administrative centres in the Kingdom, the courts were royal residences, but also were to collect taxes and function the same as a modern government building.[209][210]
Gwynedd was traditionally divided into using nature as borders, the rivers
Anglesey (Welsh: Ynys Môn)
Commote | Modern local | Notes |
---|---|---|
Aberffraw | Aberffraw | Historic seat of rulers of Gwynedd |
Cemais | Cemaes | |
Talebolyon | ||
Llan-faes | Llan-maes |
|
Penrhos | Penrhos | |
Rhosyr | Newborough, Niwbro | in 1294, refounded to house displaced villagers from Llanfaes |
Upper Gwynedd, Conwy
Gwynedd above the Conwy, or upper Gwynedd
Commote | Modern local | Notes |
---|---|---|
Arllechwedd Uchaf | Abergwyngregyn, Conwy County Borough | |
Arllechwedd Isaf | Trefriw, Conwy County Borough |
Commote | Modern local | Notes |
---|---|---|
Arfon Uwch Gwyrfai | Gwynedd | Arfon above Gwyrfai |
Arfon Is Gwyrfai | Gwynedd | Arfon beneath Gwyrfai |
Commote | Modern local | Notes |
---|---|---|
Ardudwy | Meirionnydd area within Gwynedd | |
Eifionydd | Dwyfor area within Gwynedd | Named after Eifion ap Dunod ap Cunedda |
Commote | Modern local | Notes |
---|---|---|
Dinllaen | Dwyfor council in Gwynedd county | |
Cymydmaen | Dwyfor council in Gwynedd county | |
Cafflogion |
Commote | Modern local | Notes |
---|---|---|
Ystumaner | Merionethshire council in Gwynedd county | |
Tal-y-bont |
Lower Gwynedd, Conwy
Also known as Perfeddwlad, or "the Middle Country" or Gwynedd Is Conwy (Gwynedd below the Conwy, or lower Gwynedd)
- Cantref Tegeingl:
- Dyffryn Clwyd:
- Rhufoniog
- Cantref Rhos
Legacy
Following
See also
- List of rulers of Gwynedd
- House of Aberffraw
- King of Wales
- Family tree of Welsh monarchs
- King of the Britons
- List of legendary kings of Britain
References
- ^ a b Wade-Evans, Arthur. Welsh Medieval Law. Oxford Univ., 1909. Retrieved 1 February 2013.
- ^ Bradley, A.G. (1 February 2013) [1901]. "Owen Glyndwr and the Last Struggle for Welsh Independence". New York city: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
- ^ Jenkins, John (1 February 2013) [1873]. "Poetry of Wales". archive.org. London: Houlston & Sons.
- ^ a b "Deganwy castle". castlesfortsbattles.co.uk. Archived from the original on 16 May 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ Lloyd 2004, p. 232.
- ^ Llwyd 1832, pp. 112–113.
- ^ a b c Lloyd 2004.
- ^ a b "Aber Castle (Garth Celyn)". sarahwoodbury.co.uk. 26 July 2017. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ Bell 1955
- ^ Archpriest Vladislav Tsypin. "THE CHURCH IN SEVENTH CENTURY CELTIC BRITAIN". orthochristian.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 151.
- ^ Lewis, Timothy (1913). "A glossary of mediaeval Welsh law, based upon the Black book of Chirk". Manchester University Press.
- ^ a b "The lost kingdoms of Wales". walesonline.co.uk. 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ Maund 2006.
- ^ a b Parry 1959
- ^ a b c d e f g h Pierce9
- ^ a b c Pierce11 1959
- ISBN 978-1-85285-014-2.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Davies 1994
- ^ Fitzpatrick-Matthews, K. (29 January 2013). "Harley MS 3859". kmatthews.org.uk. Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
Harleian genealogies
- ^ a b c "Cantrefs and Commotes of Wales". maryjones.us. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ Hamp, Eric P. (1995). Goidil, Feni, Gwynedd, Proc. Harvard Celtic Colloquium 12. pp. 43–50.
- ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture. ABC-Clio. p. 867.
- ^ Koch, John T. (1997). The Gododdin of Aneirin. University of Wales. p. xcviii.
- ISBN 9789004173361.
- ^ "The Geography of Claudius Penelope". penelope.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
Ptolemy
- JSTOR 25507836.
- ^ "After the Ice Age". museum.wales. 11 May 2007. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "Wales' earliest village?". archaeology.co.uk. 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
- ^ "Ancient Stone Age artifacts discovered at Anglesey water treatment works site". 11 June 2017. Archived from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2021.
- ^ "Bryn Celli Ddu". cadw.gov.wales. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "Eryri – Snowdonia". snowdonia.gov.wales. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "Trawsfynydd Tankard". Archived from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2021.
- ^ "Bryn Eryr Iron Age Roundhouses". museum.wales. Archived from the original on 16 December 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
- ^ "Garn Boduan". rhiw.com. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ Lowe 1912, pp. 12–123, 65.
- ^ "North west Wales hill forts" (PDF). BBC. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "Segontium Roman Fort". cadw.gov.wales. Cadw. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Caer Gybi". cadw.gov.wales. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "The Roman Conquest of Wales". heritagedaily.com. 15 January 2021. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "Why do Welsh place names appear around the world?". BBC. 11 August 2019. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b Pierce17 1959
- ^ "Family tree". owain-glyndwr.wales. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ^ "DIRECT DESCENT OF QUEEN ELIZABETH II FROM HENRY VII AND ELIZABETH OF YORK". tudorhistory.org. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ^ a b "A royal dynasty". BBC. 5 August 2008. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ^ "KATHERYN of BERAIN (' Catrin o'r Berain ', 1534/5 – 1591), ' Mam Cymru ' ('The mother of Wales')". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- ^ a b c d "EDNYFED FYCHAN, (EDNYFED ap CYNWRIG) and his descendants, noble family of Gwynedd.". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- ^ "Direct succession". royalstuartsociety.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ^ "Jacobite Studies Trust". jacobitestudiestrust.org. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
- ^ Christopher A. Snyder (2003). The Britons. Blackwell Publishing.
- ^ Koch 2005, p. 738.
- ^ "Cunedda Wledig "Imperator" ab Edern, Brenin Lothian a Gwenydd". geni.com. 385. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b c d Lloyd1 1959
- ^ Giles 1841, p. 200.
- ^ from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
Issue 462
- ISBN 0140143955.
- ^ Kingsford 1894, pp. 217–221.
- ^ "Maelgwn Gwynedd, King of Gwynedd". earlybritishmingdoms.com. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "Maelgwyn ap Cadwallon, Brenin Gwynedd". geni.com. 480. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b Davies1 1959
- ^ Lloyd 1893a, p. 306.
- ISBN 9780788444906. Archivedfrom the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
- ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 136–137.
- ^ Wikisource. . . pp. 318–320 – via
- ^ "Maelgwn Gwynedd and the Yellow Eye". grahamwatkins.info. 24 August 2019. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "Prince Elidyr Mwynfawr of Strathclyde". earlybritishkingdoms.com. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ "Rhun Hir, King of Gwynedd". earlybritishkingdoms.com. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ Davies2 1959
- ^ Lloyd2 1959
- ^ Tout 1901
- ^ "Dating the Battle of Chester". carlyanayland.org. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b Lloyd3 1959
- ^ Wikisource. . . pp. 288–292 – via
- ^ a b c "Cadwallon, King of Gwynedd". earlybritishkingdoms.com. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ Bertram Colgrave; R. A. B. Mynors, eds. (1969). "Bede's ecclesiastical history of the English people". Medieval Sourcebook: Bede (673735). Clarendon Press. volume: Book II. Archived from the original on 25 September 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
- ^ Bede. Wikisource. . In Jane, Lionel C. (ed.). . Translated by Stevens, John. p. 102 – via
- ^ a b Lloyd4 1959
- ^ "St. Cadwaladr Fendigai, King of Gwynedd". earlybritishkingdoms.com. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b Giles 1841
- ^ Leslie0 1886
- ^ "When the Vikings invaded North Wales". museum.wales. 2 April 2007. Archived from the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ ISBN 9781134318261. Archivedfrom the original on 28 August 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
- ^ Lloyd 2004, p. 323.
- ^ a b Pierce1 1959
- ^ Lee0 1894
- ^ "LLYWARCH HEN, a 6th-century British prince and a hero of a cycle of Welsh tales dating from the mid-9th century". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- ^ Davies, John (1990), A History of Wales (First ed.), London: Penguin Group (published 1993), ISBN 0-7139-9098-8
- ^ Lloyd, John Edward (1911), A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest, vol. I (2nd ed.), London: Longmans, Green, and Co (published 1912), p. 323-324
- ISBN 9780140250749.
- ^ "Rhodri The Great". bbc.o.uk. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b Lee1 1896
- ^ a b Pierce2 1959
- ^ "About ABERFFRAW and its History". aberffraw.wales. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b c Davies 1994, pp. 116, 117, 128, 135
- ^ Lloyd 2004, pp. 220
- ^ Arthur Jones (1910). The history of Gruffydd ap Cynan. Manchester University Press.
- ^ "History of Gruffydd Ap Cynan". mary.jones.us. Archived from the original on 4 June 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b c d Williams 1959
- ^ Lee2 1891
- ^ Pierce3 1959
- ^ Lee3 1891
- ^ Roderick
- ^ Hudson 1959.
- ^ Tout 1890a, pp. 305–307.
- ^ a b Lloyd, J. E. (1959). "BLEDDYN ap CYNFYN (died 1075), prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
- ^ a b Pierce7 1959
- ^ Pierce4 1959
- ^ Lee4 1891
- ^ a b Leslie 1890
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Lloyd 2004, pp. 21–22, 36, 39, 40, 76–77
- ^ a b c d e f g Davies 1994, pp. 104–108, 116
- ^ Conquest, Anarchy and Lordship: Yorkshire, 1066–1154, p. 22–25, at Google Books
- ^ a b Warner 1997, pp. 61, 63
- ^ Barlow 2000, pp. 320–324.
- ^ Barlow 2000.
- ^ a b Bartlett 2000
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/13107. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ Wikisource. . – via
- ^ a b c Wilcott, Darrell. "The Ancestry of Edwin of Tegeingl". Archived from the original on 5 May 2008. Retrieved 27 May 2008.
- ^ Davies 1994, pp. 109, 127–130, 137, 141, 149, 166, 176..
- ^ a b c d e f Lloyd 2004, pp. 77–79
- ^ a b c d Lloyd 2004, pp. 80, 82–85
- ^ a b Warner 1997, pp. 69, 79
- ^ a b c Lloyd 2004, pp. 79–80
- ^ a b c d Pierce5 1959
- ^ a b c Lee5 1895
- ^ "Owain Gwynedd ap Gruffydd, King of Gwynedd". geni.com. 1100. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ Lloyd 2004, p. 93.
- ^ Lloyd 2004, pp. 85, 93, 104.
- ^ Lloyd 2004, pp. 94–95.
- ^ a b c d e Lloyd 2004, p. 95
- ^ a b c d Warner 1997, p. 80
- ^ Llwyd 1832, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Lloyd 2004, p. 96.
- ^ a b Lloyd 2004, pp. 96–98
- ^ a b c d Lloyd 2004, p. 99
- ^ "The Princes and the Marcher Lords". old.wrexham.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Plaque marks Welsh king's triumph". BBC. 26 January 2008. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
- ^ a b c d Descriptio Cambriae, p. 351,491,511, at Google Books
- ^ a b c d Lloyd 2004, pp. 107–109
- ^ Lloyd 1896b, p. 89.
- ^ a b Davies 1994, pp. 125–126
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lloyd 2004, pp. 111–114
- ^ a b Davies 1994, pp. 103 128–129
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 148.
- ^ a b c d e Leslie1
- ^ Barbier 1908, p. 126.
- ^ Williams 1908, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Pierce6
- ^ Lloyd6
- ^ "Prince Madoc American legend set to bring surge in tourists for North Wales". walesexpress.com. 24 March 2018. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
- ^ Llwyd 1832, pp. 81–82.
- ^ a b c d Lloyd5
- ^ a b c d Chisholm0 1911
- ^ Pierce8
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Chisholm1
- ^ a b Lee6
- ^ Pierce10
- ^ Davies 1987, p. 294.
- ^ Davies 1987, p. 229, 241.
- ^ Williams 1860, p. 154.
- ^ Maund 2006, p. 193.
- ^ Williams 1860, pp. 158–159.
- ^ Turvey 2010, p. 86.
- ^ Lynch 1995, p. 135.
- ^ Llwyd 1832, pp. 83–90.
- ^ "Aberffraw Palace, Aberffraw (15012)". Coflein. RCAHMW. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
- ^ RCAHMW, An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Anglesey, p. XXXVIII, at Google Books
- ^ "Aberffraw, Excavated Features, Rejected Roman Fort And Suggested Llys Site (401126)". Coflein. RCAHMW.
- ^ "Inside the Royal Household". royal.uk. Archived from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Iorwerth (cyfraith)" (PDF). cyfrath-hywel.org.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ^ Lloyd 2004, p. 297.
- ^ The Ancient Laws of Wales: Viewed Especially in Regard to the Light They Throw Upon the Origin of Some English Institutions at Google Books
- ^ Davies 1987, p. 249.
- ^ Williams 1860, p. 198.
- ^ Tout & 1885-1900
- ^ a b c Lloyd7 1959
- ^ Lee7 1890
- ^ a b Pierce13 1959
- ^ a b c d Pierce14 1959
- ^ "ELEANOR DE MONTFORT (c. 1258–1282), princess and diplomat". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- ISBN 978-1-78316-007-5.
- ISBN 978-1-85285-014-2. Archivedfrom the original on 21 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8517. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ a b c d e f g h Leslie2 1888
- ^ a b Smith 2001, p. 577
- ^ a b Smith 2001, p. 576.
- ^ "Hafod Garth Celyn". Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 24 January 2009.
- ISBN 9780511522369. Archivedfrom the original on 13 December 2021. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- ^ Pierce12 1959
- ^ a b c d Edwards, Sir Owen Morgan (1906). Wikisource. . . Vol. 12. p. 58-59 – via
- ^ "The Welsh March". BBC. 26 August 2008. Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ISBN 9781846155994. Archivedfrom the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ Pierce15 1959
- ^ Pierce16 1959
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 164–166.
- ^ Walker 1990, pp. 165–167.
- ^ a b "Titles and Heraldry". princeofwales.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ Williams, Glamor. Recovery, reorientation and reformation. pp. 217–226.
Wales, C. 1415–1642
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 233.
- ^ Wikisource. . . 1908. p. 191 – via
- ^ Alan Klehr (7 October 2021). "Owain Glyndwr's legendary fight for Wales". britishheritage.com. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ Davies 1994.
- .
- ^ "Castles of Llywelyn Fawr". walesdirectory.co.uk. Archived from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Llywelyn ap Gruffydd". sarahwoodbury.com. 17 December 2019. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Joan, Lady of Wales". historytheinterestingbits.com. 2 May 2020. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ Catrin Beynon. "Gwenllian, Lost Princess of Wales". historic-uk.com. Archived from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Penmon – Area 1 Llanfaes PRN 33471". heneb.co.uk. Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Aberffraw". red-dragon-wales.com. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Llywelyn ap Gruffudd [Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf ('The Last')], (d.1282)". snowdonia.gov.wales. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "The Princes of Snowdonia". snowdonia.gov.wales. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Welsh Counties". thewalesmap.com. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Review of Preserved County boundaries" (PDF). ldbc.gov.wales. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Local Government Act 1972". legislation.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "Local Government (Wales) Act 1994". legislation.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
Explanatory notes
- ^ Old Welsh (until 12th century)
Middle Welsh (12th–14th century) - ^ British Latin in use until 8th century. Medieval Latin used thereafter for legal and liturgical purposes.
- ^ History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages
- ^ Nennius translated by John Allen Giles who wrote that Cunedda arrived in Gwynedd 146 years before the reign of his great-grandson Maelgwn backdated in the usual Welsh Calendrical calculations from his death date in 547, which makes 401 the year of his arrival.[54]
- ^ Assessment from Davies novel 1994.
- ^ It took until 1282, when Edward I conquered Gwynedd, for the last part of Roman Britain to fall. Indeed a strong case can be made for Gwynedd as the very last part of the entire Roman Empire, east and west, to fall to the barbarians. (If we take into account the temporary capture of Constantinople by 'Franks' in 1204, and of various Persian, Slav, Avar, and Seljuk invasions of Byzantine territory.)" Ward-Perkins was elaborating on an observation by J. Campbell,[56]
- legendary kings of Britain, like his father and his son being the final ruler from a line dating back to 1100 BC beginning with Brutus of Troy, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Historia Regum Britanniae.[79]
- ^ Recovers Gwynedd, Norman invasion, Battle of Anglesey Sound, pgs 21–22, 36, 39, 40, later years 76–77
- ^ Of the three surviving groups of manuscripts of the Cyfraith Hywel (all dating from the 12th century or later), one group recognises Gwynedd exclusively, another Deheubarth exclusively, and the last both together. See Wade-Evans, A.W. Welsh Medieval Law. "Introduction". Oxford Univ., 1909. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
- ^ It was hoped that placing a prelate loyal to the Normans over the traditionally independent Welsh church in Gwynedd would help to pacify the local inhabitants, and Hervé [115]recognised the primacy of the Archbishop of Canterbury over the episcopal see of Bangor, a recognition hitherto rejected by the Welsh church.
- ^ Mentioned in the Magnus Barefoot saga.[118]
- ^ Speculation about Owain might have shown him of restrained and prudent temperament, may have judged that aiding in Stephen's capture would lead to the restoration of Matilda and a strong royal government in England, a government which would support Marcher lords—support hitherto lacking since Stephen's usurpation.
- ^ Lloyd 2004 book, Owain and Henry II page, 99. 1070.
- ^ Owain 1160–1170, Lloyd 2004 Book
- ^ Quoting what Lloyd wrote, 2004.
- ^ emerging de facto statehood pg 148
- ^ It is, therefore, possible that Owain hoped to maintain this Irish connection by ensuring the succession of one of his sons born of this Irish woman, Pyfog. Furthermore, it seems illogical – given the fact Owain was so set on their succession and the respect he no doubt commanded in Ireland – that the mother of Rhun and Hywel was a mere commoner and that both those children were born out of wedlock.
- ^ What the annals record, is that in 1146 the eldest son and designated heir, Rhun – a man who was acclaimed as a great warrior and the "flower of Celtic chivalry", according to J.E. Lloyd,- "died" mysteriously, and that Hywel, his natural brother, was proclaimed the new edling, or heir.
- ^ and the internal strife appears to have been conflict between two rival factions: a pro-Irish 'legitimists' faction seeking to ensure the succession of Hywel and protect the legacy of Owain Gwynedd and his father, and a second distinctly anti-Irish coalition headed by Owain's widow.
- ^ However little information is available on these occurrences, and the divisions are vaguely unclear
- ^ The myth of transatlantic travel, pre Columbus era has been questioned yet rebuffed for centuries.[151]
- ^ Dafydd appears to have been recognised as pre-eminent amongst them and was regarded in some way as the overall leader.
General sources
Books
Primary sources
- Barbier, Paul (1908). The age of Owain Gwynedd. Newport: London D. Nutt.
- ISBN 0-300-08291-6.
- Bartlett, Robert (2000). England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings: 1075–1225. ISBN 0-19-822741-8.
- Davies, John (1994). A History of Wales. ISBN 0140284753.
- ISBN 0-7607-5241-9.
- Llwyd, Angharad (1832). A history of the island of Anglesey.
- Lowe, Walter Bezant (1912). The Heart of Northern Wales. Vol. 1. – The Heart of Northern Wales at Google Books
- Lynch, Frances M. B. (1995). Gwynedd (A Guide to Ancient and Historic Wales). ISBN 978-0-11-701574-6.
- Maund, Kari L. (2006). The Welsh Kings: Warriors, Warlords, and Princes (3 ed.). ISBN 978-0-7524-2973-1.
- Moore, David (2005). The Welsh Wars of Independence. Tempus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7524-3321-9.
- Parry, Thomas; Bell, H. Idris (1955). "A History of Welsh Literature". archive.org. Oxford University Press.
- Turvey, Roger, ed. (2010). Twenty-One Welsh Princes. ISBN 9781845272692.
- Walker, David (1990). Medieval Wales. ISBN 9780521311533.
- Warner, Philip (1997). Famous Welsh Battles. New York City: ISBN 0-7607-0466-X.
- Williams, W. Llewelyn (1908). Giraldus Cambrensis, The Itinerary Through Wales and the Description of Wales.
Secondary sources
- Bown, Ivor (1908). Statutes of Wales. London: T. Fisher Unwin.
- ISBN 1-84188-188-0.
- ISBN 978-0-19-821732-9.
- ISBN 0-86243-545-5.
- Evans, Simon (1990). A Mediaeval Prince of Wales: the Life of Gruffudd Ap Cynan. Llanerch Enterprises. ISBN 0-947992-58-8.
- Giles, John Allen (1841). The works of Gildas and Nennius. London: James Bohn.
- ISBN 0195162374.
- Jones, Owen; Williams, Edward; Pughe, William Owen (1801). The Myvyrian Archaiology
- Koch, John (2005). Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio.
- ISBN 978-0-7083-1638-2.
- Maund, K. L. (1996). Gruffudd ap Cynan: a collaborative biography. ISBN 0-85115-389-5.
- Morris, John E. (1996). The Welsh Wars of Edward I. ISBN 0-938289-67-5.
- ISBN 9780747232674.
- Penman, Sharon Kay. The Welsh Trilogy. Ballantine Books.
- Pennant, Thomas. A Tour of Wales. Vol. 1–8.
- Pryce, Huw; Insley, Charles (2005). The Acts of Welsh Rulers 1120–1283. University of Wales Press. ISBN 0708318975.
- Smith, Beverley J. (2001). Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales. University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-1474-6.
- Stephenson, David (1984). The Governance of Gwynedd. OL 22379507M.
- Roger Turvey (2002). "Conflict or Coexistence: Marchia Wallie and Pura Wallia". The Welsh Princes. ISBN 9781315840802.
- Williams, John (1860). Brut y Tywysogion; or, The Chronicle of the Princes (reprint ed.). London: Longman Green.
Caradoc of Llancarfan
Dictionary of Welsh biography sources
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Cunedda Wledig, flourished 450, British prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Davies, William Hopkin (1959). "Maelgwn Gwynedd,(died c. 547) king of Gwynedd and monk". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Davies, William Hopkin (1959). "Rhun Ap Maelgwn Gwynedd, (fl. 550), ruler of north-west Wales". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Cadfan (fl. 620), prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Cadwallon (died 633), prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Cadwaladr (died 664), prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- "Rhodri Molwynog (died 754), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- "Cynan Dindaethwy (died 816) Prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- "Hywel ap Rhodri Molwynog (died 825), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Merfyn Frych (died 844), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Rhodri Mawr ('the Great') (died 877), king of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Anarawd ap Rhodri (died 916), prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Idwal Foel ('the Bald '; died 942), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Iago Ab Idwal Foel (fl. 942–979), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Williams, Stephan Joseph (1959). "Hywel Dda (Hywel the Good) (died 950), king and legislator". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Hywel ap Ieuaf (died 985), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Ieuaf (or Idwal) ab Idwal Foel (died 985), joint king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Meurif Ab Idwal Foel (died 986), nobleman of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Idwal Ap Meurig (died 996), prince of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- "Maerdudd ab Owain ap Hywel Dda (died 999)". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Llywelyn Ap Seisyll (died 1023), king of Deheubarth and Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Iago ab Idwal Foel (died 1039), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Parry, Thomas (1959). "Gruffudd ap Cynan (c. 1055 – 1137), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Hudson, Benjamin (1959). "Gruffudd ap Llywelyn (died 1064), king of Gwynedd 1039–1064 and overlord of all the Welsh 1055–1064". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- "Bleddyn ap Cynfyn (died 1075) Prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Trahaern Ap Caradog (died 1081), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Iorwerth Drwyndwn (The Flat-nosed) (died probably c. 1174), prince of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Owain Gwynedd (c. 1100 – 1170), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Roderick, Arthur James (1959). "Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd (died 1170), soldier and poet". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Cadwaladr(died 1172), prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Maelgwn ab Owain Gwynedd (died after 1173), prince of Anglesey". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Cynan ab Owain (died 1174), prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Rhodri ab Owain (died 1195), a prince of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd (David I, died 1203), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Llywelyn ap Iorwerth ('Llywelyn the Great', often styled 'Llywelyn I', prince of Gwynedd)". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Gruffudd ap Llywelyn (died 1064), king of Gwynedd 1039–1064 and overlord of all the Welsh 1055–1064". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (died 1244), prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Thomas Jones Pierce (1959). "Maredudd ap Cynan ab Owain Gwynedd (died 1212), lord of Eifionydd, part of Ardudwy, and Merioneth and co-founder of the Cistercian house of Cymmer". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Llywelyn Fawr and Llywelyn Fychan (fl. early 13th century). lords of Merioneth". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1959). "Dafydd ap Llywelyn (David II, died 1246), Prince". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Owain ap Gruffydd, or Owain Goch, (fl. 1260), a prince of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Llywelyn ap Gruffydd ('Llywelyn the Last,' or Llywelyn II), Prince of Wales (died 1282)". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Dafydd ap Gruffydd (David III, died 1283), prince of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Rhodri ap Gruffydd (died c. 1315), prince of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Madog ap Llywelyn, rebel of 1294". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Owain ap Thomas ap Rhodri (' Owain Lawgoch '; died 1378), a soldier of fortune and pretender to the principality of Wales". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
- Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). "Owain Glyndŵr (c. 1354 – 1416), 'Prince of Wales'". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
Wiki source – Dictionary of National Biography and Encyclopædia
- Kingsford, Charles Lethbridge (1894). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 40. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 217–221. . In
- Lloyd, John Edward (1896). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 89. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1890). Stephen, Leslie; Lee, Sidney (eds.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 23. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 305-307. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1890). Stephen, Leslie; Lee, Sidney (eds.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 23. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 301–304. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1890). Stephen, Leslie; Lee, Sidney (eds.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 23. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 307–308. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1890). Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 21. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 427–434. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1891). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 105. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1891). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 105–107. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1891). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 412. . In
- Thomas, Daniel Lleufer (1891). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 407–408. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1891). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 107. . In
- Thomas, Daniel Lleufer (1891). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 412. . In
- Thomas, Daniel Lleufer (1891). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 408. . In
- Lloyd, John Edward (1893). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 35. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 305–306. . In
- Lloyd, John Edward (1893). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 36. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 130. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1893). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 34. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 13–21. . In
- Lloyd, John Edward (1894). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 37. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 277. . In
- Miller, Arthur (1885). Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 1. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 370. . In
- Stephens, William Richard Wood (1886). Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 8. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 201. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1886). Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 8. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 190. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1886). Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 8. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 190–191. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1888). Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 14. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 199–200. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1888). Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 14. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 202–205. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1893). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 34. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 7–13. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1893). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 34. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 6–7. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1895). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 41. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 391–395. . In
- Lloyd, John Edward (1896). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 86. . In
- Lloyd, John Edward (1896). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 85. . In
- Lloyd, John Edward (1896). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 85–86. . In
- Lloyd, John Edward (1899). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 57. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 147. . In
- Tout, Thomas Frederick (1885–1900). Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. .
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 860.
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 831.
External links
- Williams Ab Ithel, John, ed. (2012). Brut Y Tywysogion. Cambridge Library Collection - Rolls. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108043021.
- Nancy Edwards. "Early Medieval Wales: material evidence and identity" (PDF). research.bangor.ac.uk.