Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)

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Kingdom of Hungary
  • Magyar Királyság (
    Latin)
1000–1301
Árpád dynasty
Flag of Hungary
Top: Royal standard of the 13th century[1]
Bottom: Dynastic standard of the 13th century[2][3]
Coat of arms of the 13th century of Hungary
Coat of arms of the 13th century
Latin (ceremonial/liturgical/administrative),[6] Hungarian, Croatian, German, Slavic dialects, Cuman, Vlach
Religion
King
 
• 1000–1038 (first)
Stephen I
• 1290–1301 (the last king of Árpáds)
Andrew III
Palatine 
• c. 1009–1038 (first)
Samuel Aba
• 1298–1299 (the last palatine of the Árpád reign)
Roland Rátót
LegislatureParlamentum Generale (since 1290s)[7]
Historical eraMedieval
• Established
1000
1102
1222
1224
• Resettlement of Cumans and Jasz people
1238-1239
1241-1242
1285-1286
• Death of King Andrew III, the last member of the House of Árpád
1301
Area
1200[8]282,870 km2 (109,220 sq mi)
Population
• 1200[8]
2,000,000
ISO 3166 codeHU
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Principality of Hungary
Kingdom of Croatia
Principality of Nitra (disputed)
Kingdom of Hungary after the Árpád dynasty
flag Slovakia portal

The

Balkan Peninsula and the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains
, transforming their kingdom into one of the major powers of medieval Europe.

Rich in uncultivated lands, silver, gold, and salt deposits, Hungary became the preferred destination of mainly German, Italian, and

Roman Catholic character of the culture; but Orthodox, and even non-Christian ethnic minority communities also existed. Latin was the language of legislation, administration and the judiciary, but "linguistic pluralism"[9]
contributed to the survival of many tongues, including a great variety of Slavic dialects.

The predominance of royal estates initially assured the sovereign's preeminent position, but the alienation of royal lands gave rise to the emergence of a self-conscious group of lesser landholders, known as "

Jassic groups settled in the central lowlands, and colonists arrived from Moravia, Poland, and other nearby countries. The erection of fortresses by landlords, promoted by the monarchs after the withdrawal of the Mongols, led to the development of semi-autonomous "provinces" dominated by powerful magnates. Some of these magnates even challenged the authority of Andrew III (1290–1301), the last male descendant of the native Árpád dynasty
. His death was followed by a period of interregnum and anarchy. Central power was re-established only in the early 1320s.

Background

The Magyars, or

Otto I, who defeated them at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955.[15]

Hungarians lived in

Ibn Rusta and others added that they also cultivated arable land.[19] The great number of borrowings from Slavic languages[b] prove that the Hungarians adopted new techniques and a more settled lifestyle in Central Europe.[21] The cohabitation of Hungarians and local ethnic groups is also reflected in the assemblages of the "Bijelo Brdo culture",[22] which emerged in the mid-10th century.[23] Archaeological finds—a few objects with short inscriptions—indicate the use of a special runiform script in medieval Hungary. The inscriptions have not been deciphered, and the script was probably never used for administrative or legislative purposes.[24]

Although they were pagan, the Hungarians demonstrated a tolerant attitude towards Christians, Jews, and Muslims.

When Géza died in 997,

"Patrimonial" kingdom

King St Stephen (1000–1038)

Stephen was crowned the first

gyepü was intentionally left uninhabited for defensive purposes along the frontiers.[38]

his wife founding a church at Óbuda

Stephen developed a state similar to the monarchies of contemporary

Christian marriage against polygamy and other traditional customs.[41] Decorated belts and other items of pagan fashion also disappeared.[47] Commoners started to wear long woolen coats, but wealthy men persisted in wearing their silk kaftans decorated with furs.[47]

From a legal perspective, Hungarian society was divided into freemen and

castle folk cultivated the lands, forged weapons, or rendered other services.[51][52] All freemen were to pay a special tax, the freemen's pennies—eight denars per person per year—to the monarchs.[53][54] Peasants known as udvornici were exempt from this tax, being somewhat transitory between the status of freemen and of serf.[55] Serfs theoretically lacked the legal status available to freemen,[56] but in practice they had their own property: they cultivated their masters' land with their own tools, and kept 50–66 percent of the harvest for themselves.[57] Stephen's laws and charters suggest that most commoners lived in sedentary communities which formed villages.[58] An average village was made up of no more than 40 semi-sunken timber huts with a corner hearth.[58] The huts were surrounded by large courtyards. Ditches separated them, keeping the animals away and enabling the growing of grains and vegetables.[59] Many of the villages were named after a profession,[d] implying that the villagers were required to render a specific service to their lords.[58]

Pagan revolts, wars, and consolidation (1038–1116)

Stephen I survived his son,

Emperor Henry III, Peter returned and expelled Samuel in 1044.[37] During his second rule, Peter accepted the emperor's suzerainty.[37] His rule ended with a new rebellion, this time aimed at the restoration of paganism. There were many lords who opposed the destruction of the Christian monarchy. They proposed the crown to Andrew, one of Vazul's sons, who returned to Hungary, defeated Peter and suppressed the pagans in 1046.[63] His cooperation with his brother, Béla, a talented military commander, ensured the Hungarians' victory over Emperor Henry III, who attempted to conquer the kingdom two times: in 1050 and 1053.[64]

A new civil war broke out when Duke Béla claimed the crown for himself in 1059, but his three sons accepted the rule of

tithes.[69] He forbade Jews from holding Christian serfs, and introduced laws aiming at the conversion of local Muslims, who were known as Böszörménys.[70]

The death of Ladislaus's brother-in-law King

separate duchy under his brother's suzerainty.[78] Throughout Coloman's reign, the brothers' relationship remained tense, which finally led to the blinding of Álmos and his infant son Béla.[79]

Coloman routed two bands of crusaders (the perpetrators of the

Hungarian noblemen received land grants from the monarchs.[84] Zadar, Split, and other Dalmatian towns also accepted Coloman's suzerainty in 1105, but their right to elect their own bishops and leaders remained unchanged.[85][86] In Croatia and Slavonia, the sovereign was represented by governors bearing the title ban.[84] Likewise, a royal official, the voivode, administered Transylvania, the eastern borderland of the kingdom.[87] The central administration's highest offices developed from the royal household's leading positions. Initially responsible for the management of the royal domains, the palatine emerged as the king's deputy by the early 12th century. His managerial tasks were transferred to a new official who quickly gained the functions of a chief justiciar as judge royal.[88]

11th-century Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary in the 1090s

Like Ladislaus I, Coloman proved to be a great legislator, but he prescribed less severe punishments than his uncle had done.

Kiev.[93] Local trade also existed, which enabled Coloman to collect the marturina, the traditional in-kind tax of Slavonia, in cash.[94] Coloman exempted those who lived on their own estates from the freemen's pennies, and allowed other freemen to redeem half of the tax through services provided.[54] Modern scholars assume that the earliest Hungarian chronicle was composed under Coloman, but it did not survive. This "primary" chronicle is thought to have been expanded and rewritten in accordance with changing political expectations during the 12th century. All scholarly attempts to reconstruct the original text based on chronicles from the 14th and 15th centuries have proved futile.[95][96]

The kingdom was sparsely populated, with an average population density of four or five people per 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi).

oats were produced for fodder.[99] Both written sources and archaeological evidence indicate that famine was an exceptional phenomenon in medieval Hungary.[103]

Expansion and colonization (1116–1196)

Unsuccessful wars with the Republic of Venice, the Byzantine Empire, and other neighboring states characterized the reign of Coloman's son, Stephen II, who succeeded his father in 1116.[104] The earliest mention of the Székelys—a Hungarian-speaking community of free warriors—is in connection with the young king's first war against the Duchy of Bohemia. The Székelys lived in scattered groups along the borders, but they were moved to the easternmost regions of Transylvania in the 12th century.[105] Stephen II died childless in 1131.[104] His cousin, Duke Álmos' blind son Béla II, succeeded him. During his reign, the kingdom was administered by his wife, Helena of Serbia, who ordered the massacre of the lords whom she blamed for her husband's mutilation.[106] Boris Kalamanos, an alleged son of King Coloman who attempted to seize the throne from Béla II, received no internal support.[104]

Otto of Freising on King Géza II's Authority

If anyone of the rank of count has even in a trivial matter offended against the king or, as sometimes happens, has been unjustly accused of this, an emissary from the court, though he be of very lowly station and unattended, seizes him in the midst of his retinue, puts him in chains, and drags him off to various forms of punishment. No formal sentence is asked of the prince through his peers, ... no opportunity of defending himself is granted the accused, but the will of the prince alone is held by all as sufficient.

Otto of Freising, The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa[107]

Béla II's son,

Al-Andaluz from Granada who travelled around eastern and central Europe. In 1150, he travelled to Hungary, where he lived for 3 years and worked as an advisor in the court of King Géza II. He claimed that "Hungary is one of the countries where life is easiest and best", Hungary had "tremendous abundance and prosperity everywhere", and Hungary was "many times more powerful" than the Byzantine Empire, adding that Géza's troops were "innumerable".[111] While crossing Hungary during the Second Crusade, Otto of Freising noticed Géza's nearly uncontrolled authority over his subjects.[108]

Gothic chapel in the Royal Castle at Esztergom
(late 12th century)

Géza promoted the colonization of the border zones.

Szepesség region (Spiš, Slovakia) and in southern Transylvania.[112][113][114] Abu Hamid refers to mountains that "contain lots of silver and gold", which points at the importance of mining and gold panning already around 1150.[115] He also writes of slave trading, mentioning that he bought an attractive slave girl for ten denars, but beautiful slave women were sold for three denars after military campaigns.[91] Archaeological evidence indicates that the large asymmetric heavy plows, capable to turn the soil over, first appeared when the new settlers arrived. As the heavy plows spread, long narrow fields, more suitable to their use, replaced the traditional small square fields in the villages.[116]

Géza was succeeded in 1162 by his eldest son, Stephen III.[104] His uncles, Ladislaus II and Stephen IV, claimed the crown for themselves.[117] Emperor Manuel I Komnenos took advantage of the internal conflicts and forced the young king to cede Dalmatia and the Szerémség to the Byzantines in 1165.[118] Stephen III set an example for the development of towns by granting liberties to the Walloon "guests" in Székesfehérvár, including immunity from the jurisdiction of the local ispán.[47][97][119] When Stephen died childless in 1172, his brother, Béla III, ascended the throne.[120][121] He reconquered Dalmatia and the Szerémség in the 1180s.[122][123]

A contemporary list shows that Béla's total income was the equivalent of 32 tonnes of silver per year,[124] but this number is clearly exaggerated.[112] According to the list, more than 50 percent of his revenues derived from the annual renewal of the silver currency, and from trade-related duties.[125] Austrian custom tariffs of the period indicate that Hungary was a major supplier of grain, leather, timber, wine, wax, honey, fish, cattle, sheep, pigs, copper, tin, lead, iron, and salt.[126] Royal revenues were due either to the royal chamber or to the king as landowner. The distinction between them was of fundamental importance because the ispáns received one third of the chamber revenues collected in their counties. In-kind taxes were typically imposed on vineyards, and herds of pigs or oxen. Some privileged communities paid lump sum taxes to the royal chamber. Examples include the foreign settlers in Transylvania, who were to pay 15,000 marks per year.[127]

Béla emphasized the importance of making records on judicial proceedings, which substantiates reports in later Hungarian chronicles of his order regarding the obligatory use of written petitions.

Romance of Alexander (two emblematic works of chivalric culture) were also popular among Hungarian aristocrats.[130] According to the consensual scholarly view, "Master P", the author of the Gesta Hungarorum, a chronicle on the Hungarian "land-taking", was Béla's notary.[96] The earliest text written in Hungarian, known as Funeral Sermon and Prayer, was preserved in the late 12th-century Pray Codex.[131][66]

Development of the Estates of the realm

Age of Golden Bulls (1196–1241)

A relief depicting St Matthew holding a book and a small angel praying besides him
Relief of Matthew the Apostle from the Romanesque church of Ják (13th century)

Béla III's son and successor,

Emeric, had to face revolts stirred up by his younger brother, Andrew.[132] Furthermore, incited by Enrico Dandolo, Doge of Venice, the armies of the Fourth Crusade took Zadar in 1202.[133][134] Emeric was succeeded in 1204 by his infant son, Ladislaus III.[135] When the young king died in a year, his uncle, Andrew, mounted the throne.[135] Stating that "the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable", he distributed large parcels of royal lands among his partisans.[136] Freemen living in former royal lands lost their direct contact to the sovereign, which threatened their legal status.[137][138] Royal revenues decreased, which led to the introduction of new taxes and their farming out to Muslims and Jews.[139] The new methods of raising funds for the royal treasury created widespread unrest.[139]

Andrew II was strongly influenced by his wife,

high treason".[142][143] Around this time, the structure of charters of grant underwent a significant change with the introduction of a narrative section about the beneficiaries' heroic acts in the king's service. These lengthy accounts contain more information about Hungary's 13th-century history than the chronicles.[144]

The Golden Bull also prohibited the employment of Muslims and Jews in royal administration.

archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate him in case of his departure from its provisions.[146] For non-Christians who continued to be employed in the royal household, Archbishop Robert of Esztergom placed the kingdom under interdict in 1232.[147] Andrew II was forced to take an oath, which included his promise to respect the privileged position of clergymen and to dismiss all his Jewish and Muslim officials.[148] A growing intolerance against non-Catholics is also demonstrated by the transfer of the Orthodox monastery of Visegrád to the Benedictines in 1221.[149]

Andrew II made several attempts to occupy the neighboring

Kuthen, agreed to accept Béla IV's supremacy; thus he and his people were allowed to settle in the Great Hungarian Plain.[155] The Cumans' nomadic lifestyle caused many conflicts with local communities.[156] The locals even considered them as the Mongols' allies.[157]

Mongol invasion (1241–1242)

A miniature depicting a crowned man on a horse chased by a group of horsemen
Mongols chasing King Béla IV after the Battle of Mohi

Klis Fortress in Dalmatia.[164] The Mongols first occupied and thoroughly plundered the territories east of the river Danube.[165] An eyewitness account of the devastation of eastern Hungary was compiled by Master Roger, archdeacon of the cathedral chapter at Várad.[166] The Mongols crossed the Danube when it was frozen in early 1242.[162] On learning of their acts, Hermann, abbot of the Austrian Niederaltaich Abbey recorded that "the Kingdom of Hungary, which had existed for 350 years, was destroyed".[162][164]

The kingdom continued to exist.

Ungvár (Uzhhorod, Ukraine) and other traditional centers of commerce.[172][173] Local Muslim communities vanished, indicating they had suffered especially heavy losses during the invasion.[174] Small villages also disappeared, but archaeological data indicate that the total destruction of settlements was less often than it used to be assumed.[175] The abandonment of most villages, well-documented from the second half of the 13th century, was the consequence of a decades-long integration process with peasants moving from the small villages to larger settlements.[171]

Last Árpáds (1242–1301)

After the Mongol withdrawal, Béla IV abandoned his policy of recovering former crown lands.

Moravians, Poles, and Romanians.[178][179] The king re-invited the Cumans and settled them in the plains along the Danube and the Tisza.[180] A group of Alans, the ancestors of the Jassic people, seems to have settled in the kingdom around the same time.[181]

New villages appeared, consisting of timber houses built side by side in equal parcels of land.

Nagyszombat (Trnava, Slovakia) and Pest.[188][189] A 1264 list of luxury goods—oriental velvet, silk, jewels, gems, and Flemish broadcloth—sold to Béla IV's heir Stephen indicates that imported goods were primarily paid for using silver and salt. Likewise, a list of merchandise brought to Ghent shows that Hungary exported wax and unminted gold and silver.[190]

13th-century Hungary
Local autonomies in the Kingdom of Hungary (late 13th century)

Although threatening letters sent to Béla IV by the khans of the Golden Horde proved that the danger of a new Mongol invasion still existed,[191] he adopted an expansionist foreign policy.[178] Frederick II of Austria died fighting against Hungarian troops in 1246,[192] and Béla IV's son-in-law, Rostislav Mikhailovich, annexed large territories along the kingdom's southern frontiers.[193][194] Conflicts between the elderly monarch and his heir caused a civil war in the 1260s.[194]

Béla IV and his son jointly confirmed the liberties of the royal servants and started referring to them as

noblemen in 1267.[195] By that time, "true noblemen" were legally differentiated from other landholders.[196] They held their estates free from any obligation, but everybody else (even the ecclesiastic nobles, Romanian knezes, and other "conditional nobles") owed services to their lords in exchange for the lands they held.[197] In a growing number of counties, local nobility acquired the right to elect four "judges of the nobles" to represent them in official procedures (or two, in Transylvania and Slavonia).[198] The idea of equating the Hungarian "nation" with the community of noblemen also emerged in this period.[199] It was first expressed in Simon of Kéza's Gesta Hungarorum, a chronicle written in the 1280s.[200]

The wealthiest landholders forced the lesser nobles to join their retinue, which increased their power.

Gutkeled clan, even captured Stephen V's heir, the infant Ladislaus, in 1272.[202] Stephen V died some months later, causing a new civil war between the Csák, Kőszegi, and other leading families who attempted to control the central government in the name of the young Ladislaus IV.[203] He was declared to be of age in 1277 at an assembly of the spiritual and temporal lords and of the noblemen's and Cumans' representatives, but he could not strengthen royal authority.[204] Ladislaus IV, whose mother, Elisabeth, was a Cuman chieftain's daughter, preferred his Cuman kin, which made him unpopular.[205][206] He was even accused of initiating a second Mongol invasion in 1285, although the invaders were routed by the royal troops.[206][207]

When Ladislaus IV was murdered in 1290, the

Ladislaus Kán, and Amadeus Aba),[213] the Croatian lord, Paul I Šubić of Bribir, dared to invite the late Charles Martel's son, the twelve-year-old Charles Robert, to Hungary.[213] The young pretender was marching from Croatia towards Buda when Andrew III unexpectedly died on January 14, 1301.[213]

Aftermath

With Andrew III's death, the male line of the House of Árpád became extinct, and a period of anarchy began.[213][215] Charles Robert was crowned king with a provisional crown, but most lords and bishops refused to yield to him because they regarded him as a symbol of the Holy See's attempts to control Hungary.[213] They elected as king the twelve-year-old Wenceslaus of Bohemia, who was descended from Béla IV of Hungary in the female line.[216][217] The young king could not consolidate his position because many lords, especially those who held domains in the southern region of the kingdom, continued to support Charles Robert.[218] Wenceslaus left Hungary for Bohemia in mid-1304.[218] After he inherited Bohemia in 1305, he abandoned his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III, Duke of Bavaria.[216][218]

Otto, who was a grandson of Béla IV of Hungary, was crowned king, but only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons regarded him as the lawful monarch.[218] He was captured in Transylvania by Ladislaus Kán, who forced him to leave Hungary.[216] The majority of the lords and prelates elected Charles Robert king at a Diet on October 10, 1307.[219] He was crowned king with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár by the Archbishop of Esztergom, as required by customary law, on August 27, 1310.[219] During the next decade, he launched a series of military campaigns against the oligarchs to restore royal authority.[220] Charles Robert reunited the kingdom after the death of the most powerful lord, Matthew Csák, which enabled him to conquer Csák's large province in the northeast of Hungary in 1321.[221][222]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The last pagan Cumans were definitely christianized in the 16th century, mostly by conversion to Protestantism.
  2. ^ For example, cseresznye ("cherry"), iga ("yoke"), kovács ("blacksmith"), ablak ("window"), patkó ("horseshoe"), and bálvány ("idol") were borrowed from Slavic.[20]
  3. ^ The extant copy of the foundation charter of the convent of nuns at Veszprémvölgy was written in Greek.[43]
  4. ^ Examples include Födémes ("beekeeper"), Hodász ("beaver hunter"), Gerencsér ("potter"), and Taszár ("carpenter") [58]
  5. ^ Olasz is the modern Hungarian word for Italians, but in the Middle Ages the term also covered other peoples speaking a Romance language.[97]

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Sources

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External links