Koh-i-Sultan
Koh-i-Sultan | |
---|---|
Koh-e-Sultan, Kuh-i-Sultan, Kuh-e-Sultan | |
Highest point | |
Elevation | 2,334 m (7,657 ft) |
Coordinates | 29°7′20″N 62°49′1″E / 29.12222°N 62.81694°E |
Naming | |
English translation | Mountain of the King |
Geography | |
Location | Balochistan, Pakistan |
Geology | |
Age of rock | Miocene-Late Pleistocene |
Mountain type | Stratovolcano |
Volcanic arc | Sultan/Makran/Baluchistan volcanic arc |
Last eruption | 90,000 ± 10,000 years ago |
Koh-i-Sultan is a volcano in Balochistan, Pakistan. It is part of the tectonic belt formed by the collision of the Eurasian Plate and Indian Plate: specifically, a segment influenced by the subduction of the Arabian plate beneath the Asian plate and forming a volcanic arc which includes the Bazman and Taftan volcanoes in Iran. The volcano consists of three main cones, with heavily eroded craters running west-northwest and surrounded by a number of subsidiary volcanic centres. Its summit is 2,334 metres (7,657 ft) high, and the crater associated with the Miri cone has a smaller crater inside.
The volcano is formed by
Geothermal activity and the emission of volcanic gases are ongoing, and the volcano has been prospected for the possibility of obtaining geothermal energy. The geothermal activity has resulted in widespread rock alteration and the formation of sulfur deposits, which were mentioned in a 1909 report and later mined. Koh-i-Sultan also has deposits of other minerals.
Geography and geology
Political geography and human history
Koh-i-Sultan is in the
Regional
Pakistan is part of the active tectonic belt which is responsible for the formation of the Himalayas following the collision of the Eurasian and Indian plates. As a result of this activity, hydrothermal alteration and hydrothermal activity are expected to be widespread in Pakistan.[8] Koh-i-Sultan is the youngest volcano in Pakistan.[9]
It is tectonically influenced by the
Local
Koh-i-Sultan is a volcanic complex
The volcano consists of
The rocks follow the
Potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating of the Miri summit has yielded an age of 200,000 years, and an older date (5,900,000 ± 2,800,000) has been obtained from the northwestern centre.[26] Between the two are andesite dates of 5,630,000 ± 90,000 years and 2,390,000 ± 50,000 years.[18][29] Although the last activity occurred during the Pleistocene (probably a large eruption), volcanism began earlier.[25] The youngest date, obtained from K-Ar dating of pumice, is 90,000 ± 10,000 years.[18] Koh-i-Sultan's Pleistocene activity is probably related to the formation of travertine deposits, which are mined.[33]
Although the volcano has experienced relatively little dissection,[34] the western cone has been eroded to the base.[5] Post-volcanic erosion has created an apron of rock fragments at Koh-i-Sultan's base,[25] with radially incised valleys bearing traces of energetic stream erosion emanating from the volcanic cones.[35][36] Koh-i-Sultan's remaining rock formations often have irregular shapes with a striking appearance; a 1909 report noted the presence of a monolith-shaped rock 91 metres (300 ft) and a dome-shaped rock formation, Koh-i-Kansuri.[37] Neza e Sultan ("Sultan's Spear") is a major spear-shaped rock formation, about 300 metres (1,000 ft) high with a basal diameter of 91 metres (300 ft).[38] Weathering has created longitudinal fissures in the rock.[39] Similar pillars are found elsewhere on the volcano,[38] reminding early explorers of Gothic architecture and minarets. Neza e Sultan (possibly named after the mythical Sultan-i-Pir-Khaisar, who is reportedly buried nearby),[40] at the westernmost crater,[39] was discovered by Europeans in 1877.[39] The rock formations may be necks of old volcanic centres.[41] Gravel, pebbles and sand form playas and dunes, also found in dry valleys.[17]
Previous volcanic activity in the area includes the Cretaceous Sinjrani volcanics, resembling those of Koh-i-Sultan,[24] and activity which produced the Chagai monzonites.[1] The Sinjrani volcanics, about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) thick, consist primarily of lava. Other rocks are agglomerates, limestone and tuff,[42] and the Cretaceous rocks are mainly andesitic.[43] The monzonitic Chagai intrusions are accompanied by other intrusions with additional minerals.[44] Other formations are the mostly sedimentary Humai formation of the late Cretaceous and the probably Paleocene Jazzak formation.[17][42] The Chagai topography is dominated by a sand-covered plain, rising to an altitude of 750–900 metres (2,460–2,950 ft).[35] Wind-eroded rocks and dry lake beds are also present.[10] Other tectonic objects are the Ras Koh range, the Mirjawa range[42] and the Chagai Hills east of Koh-i-Sultan.[45] The Sinjrani and Chagai volcanics crop out primarily west of Koh-i-Sultan,[3] and are part of the older Chagai volcanic arc.[11] Some geologists consider Koh-i-Sultan part of the Chagai arc.[46] Two nearby volcanic centres are Damodin and Koh-i-Dalel,[45] and Koh i-Kannesin is northeast of Koh-i-Sultan.[27] The crust beneath the volcano reaches a thickness of about 60 kilometres (37 mi).[32]
Environment
There is little precipitation in Chagai,[25] about 160 millimetres per year (6.3 in/year).[35] Koh-i-Sultan drains into two salt pans,[43] and is responsible for a rain shadow effect on the Sistan Basin farther north.[27] The environment around the volcano is arid, with little vegetation; according to an 1895–1896 report, however, asafoetida was collected nearby.[20] There is a large difference in temperature between summer and winter.[35]
Geothermal field
Emanations of hydrogen sulfide have been reported around the volcano,[55] preventing the mining of underground sulfur deposits,[56] and the gas is also present in the hot springs. The confirmed presence of sulfur dioxide would indicate hot magma beneath the volcano.[25]
Mining and mineral deposits
A number of
The sulfur deposits, south of Koh-i-Sultan's crater, are named Batar, Miri, Nawar and Zond and are within a 18-square-kilometre (7 sq mi) area. In the deposits, the sulfur is in the form of lenses within the volcanic rock. The Koh-i-Sultan deposits are the principal native source of sulfur in Pakistan.[56] They were probably formed by the interaction of sulfuric acid and hydrogen sulfide or from sulfur-containing hot springs when the volcano was still active.[60] Another theory suggests that they formed during the Holocene.[61] Other mineral deposits found at Koh-i-Sultan are copper-containing alterations with alunite and quartz;[62] alunogen, which can be used to obtain aluminium;[63] limonite, used as a yellow dye, and a red ochre rock containing gypsum and anthophyllite.[64] Copper deposits which also contain gold are part of an epithermal-sulfidic mineralization.[65]
See also
- List of mountains in Pakistan, Iran
- Taftan Volcano, at the Iranian side of the border
References
- ^ a b Nagell 1975, p.1
- ^ .
- ^ a b c Ahmad et al., p.8
- ^ Geological Survey Professional Paper. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1978. p. A27.
- ^ a b c d e Reclus, Elisée (1906). Les volcans de la terre (in French). Société belge d 'astronomie, de météorologie et de physique du globe. pp. 24–25. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
- ^ Perello et al. 2008, p.1585
- ^ Nagell 1976, p.7
- ^ a b Ahmad et al., p.4
- ^ a b Ahmad et al., p.10
- ^ ISBN 978-1-134-91977-2.
- ^ a b Ahmad et al., p.9
- ^ a b Saadat and Stern 2011, p.609
- ^ Perello et al. 2008, p.1586
- S2CID 128736087.
- S2CID 128679350.
- ^ Siddiqui et al. 2009, p.1
- ^ a b c d e Ahmad et al., p.7
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Siddiqui et al. 2009, p.5
- ^ a b c d Abu Bakr, M. (July 1963). "Physiography of Chagai-Kharan Region, West Pakistan" (PDF). Pakistan Geographical Review. 18 (2): 4–7. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- ^ JSTOR 1774853.
- ^ Nagell 1976, p.6a
- ^ Schmidt, R.G. (1973). "Use of ERTS-1 images in the search for porphyry copper deposits in Pakistani Baluchistan" (PDF). Nasa. Goddard Space Flight Center Symp. On Significant Results Obtained from the Erts-1, Vol. 1, Sect. A and B: 390. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- ^ Schmidt, Robert G. (January–February 1976). "Exploration for porphyry copper deposits in Pakistan using digital processing of Landsat-1 data" (PDF). Journal of Research of the US Geological Survey. 4 (1): 29. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- ^ a b Nagell 1975, p.19
- ^ .
- ^ a b c Perello et al. 2008, p.1589
- ^ USGS. pp. 8, 18. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- .
- ^ a b Richards et al. 2012, p.3127
- ^ Siddiqui et al. 2009, p.21
- ^ Saadat and Stern 2011, p.611
- ^ a b Saadat and Stern 2011, p.617
- ^ Nagell 1975, p.54
- ^ Nagell 1975, p.20
- ^ a b c d e f g Ahmad et al., p.5
- ^ McMahon et al. 1897, p.293
- ^ a b McMahon 1909, p.51
- ^ a b c McMahon 1909, pp.78–79
- ^ a b c Tate, George Passman (1909). "The frontiers of Baluchistan: travels on the borders of Persia and Afghanistan". digitalcommons.unomaha.edu. University of Nebraska, Omaha. pp. 43–44. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- JSTOR 1774479.
- ^ McMahon et al. 1897, pp.308–309
- ^ a b c Ahmad et al., p.6
- ^ a b Bankwitz, Peter; Bankwitz, E. (January 1988). "Phototectonic Interpretation of Selected Areas on the Western Margin of the Indian Ocean" (PDF). ResearchGate. p. 645. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- ^ Siddiqui et al. 2009, p.2
- ^ ISBN 978-3-319-25029-8.
- .
- ^ Ahmad et al., p.19
- ^ Ahmad et al., p.21
- ^ a b Mughal, Mohammad Naseer (1998). "Geothermal resources of Pakistan and methods for early stage exploration" (PDF). National Energy Authority of Iceland. Geothermal Training Programme. p. 251. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- ^ Ahmad et al., p.13
- ^ Ahmad et al., p.22
- ^ a b Ahmad et al., p.14
- ^ Ahmad et al., p.17
- .
- ^ Nagell 1975, p.57
- ^ a b c Nagell 1976, p.6
- ^ Nagell 1976, p.1
- ^ Nagell 1975, p.2
- ^ Nagell 1975, p.56
- .
- ^ Nagell 1976, p.5
- .
- .
- ^ McMahon et al. 1897, p.305
- ^ Richards et al. 2012, p.3027
Bibliography
- Ahmad, M.; Rafique, M.; Iqbal, N.; Fazil, M. "Investigation of origin, subsurface processes and reservoir temperature of geothermal springs around Koh-i-Sultan volcano, Chagai, Pakistan". IAEA: INIS. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- McMahon, A.H. (1909). "Letters on the Baluch-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1896 (1909)". digitalcommons.unomaha.edu. B aluch-Afghan Boundary Commi ssion. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- McMahon, C. A.; McMahon, A. H. (1 February 1897). "Notes on some Volcanic and other Rocks, which occur near the Baluchistan-Afghan Frontier, between Chaman and Persia". Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. 53 (1–4): 289–309. S2CID 128720080.
- Nagell, Raymond H. (1975). "Reconnaissance of the geology and ore mineralization in part of the Chagai District, Pakistan". USGS Numbered Series. USGS. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
- Nagell, Raymond H. (1976). "Sulfur, fluorspar, magnesite, and aluminous chromite in Pakistan" (PDF). pubs.usgs.gov. USGS Publications Warehouse: 46. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- Perello, J.; Razique, A.; Schloderer, J.; Asad-ur-Rehman (1 December 2008). "The Chagai Porphyry Copper Belt, Baluchistan Province, Pakistan". Economic Geology. 103 (8): 1583–1612. .
- Richards, J. P.; Spell, T.; Rameh, E.; Razique, A.; Fletcher, T. (15 February 2012). "High Sr/Y Magmas Reflect Arc Maturity, High Magmatic Water Content, and Porphyry Cu Mo Au Potential: Examples from the Tethyan Arcs of Central and Eastern Iran and Western Pakistan". Economic Geology. 107 (2): 295–332. .
- Saadat, Saeed; Stern, Charles R. (July 2011). "Petrochemistry and genesis of olivine basalts from small monogenetic parasitic cones of Bazman stratovolcano, Makran arc, southeastern Iran". Lithos. 125 (1–2): 607–619. .
- Siddiqui, Rehan H.; Asif Khan, M.; Qasim Jan, M.; Ogasawara, M. (2009). "Petrogenesis of Plio – Pleistocene v olcanic r ocks from the Chagai arc, Balochistan, Pakistan" (PDF). Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences. 42: 1–24. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
External links
- "Sultan". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- Kheirkhah, M.; Neill, I.; Allen, M.B.; Ajdari, K. (September 2013). "Small-volume melts of lithospheric mantle during continental collision: Late Cenozoic lavas of Mahabad, NW Iran" (PDF). Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 74: 37–49. .
- Mohammad Muslim (1973). Evaluation of Sulphur Deposits, Koh-i-Sultan (district Chagai) Baluchistan, Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan.