Kootenay River
Kootenay River Kootenai River | |
---|---|
Physical characteristics | |
Source | South flank of Castle Mountain |
• location | Mount Hungabee, Kootenay National Park, British Columbia, Canada |
• coordinates | 51°18′53.6″N 116°17′10.6″W / 51.314889°N 116.286278°W[1] |
• elevation | 2,261 m (7,418 ft)[1] |
• average | 782 m3/s (27,600 cu ft/s)[5][6] |
• minimum | 104 m3/s (3,700 cu ft/s) |
• maximum | 4,930 m3/s (174,000 cu ft/s) |
Basin features | |
Tributaries | |
• left | Goat River, Duncan River, Slocan River |
The Kootenay River
The river is known as the "Kootenay" in Canada and by the Ktunaxa Nation,[7] and as the "Kootenai" in the United States and by the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes and Kootenai Tribe of Idaho.[2] Fed mainly by glaciers and snowmelt, the river drains a rugged, sparsely populated region of more than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi), of which over 70 percent is in Canada. From its headwaters to its confluence with the Columbia River, the Kootenay descends more than 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). At their confluence, the Columbia and Kootenay are similar in length, drainage area, and volume, but less of the Kootenay is impounded in reservoirs and thus it has more free-flowing stretches with rapids and falls. Part of the lower Kootenay forms Kootenay Lake, one of the largest natural lakes in British Columbia.
The
As with many Pacific Northwest rivers, many dams were built on the Kootenay in the 20th century to generate electricity and protect against floods and droughts. Water levels of Kootenay Lake are artificially regulated, and numerous hydroelectric dams block the river between Kootenay Lake and the Columbia River. Upstream of Kootenay Lake, most of the river is free-flowing with the exception of the Libby Dam in Montana, which forms Lake Koocanusa.
Name
The river was described with slightly different names by two groups of the local
While searching for the ultimate source of the Columbia River, explorer David Thompson encountered Columbia Lake, where the Columbia River starts north as a small stream and the Kootenay rushes south, already a powerful river. Already knowing from earlier maps that the region included two rivers called the Columbia and the Kootenay, Thompson thought that what is now called the Columbia was the Kootenay, and he thought that he had not yet found the real Kootenay. Thence he applied the name "McGillivray’s River" to the real Kootenay in honor of his trading partners William and Duncan McGillivray.[11] In his writings, the Columbia from Columbia Lake to the Big Bend was called the Kootenae.[12]
The name "Kootenai" was also used by
Comparisons of various
Course
The Kootenay rises on the northeast side of the Beaverfoot Range of southeastern British Columbia and flows initially southeast through a marshy valley in Kootenay National Park. The river becomes significantly larger at its confluence with the Vermilion River, which is actually the larger of the two where they meet near Kootenay Crossing. The Kootenay continues southeast, receiving the Palliser River from the left, and flows south into a gorge at the confluence with the White River.[16][17]
At the small town of
Stretching 130 kilometres (81 mi) south and crossing the US-Canada Border,
The river re-enters Canada south of Creston, British Columbia, and flows through a marshy area called the Kootenay Flats before emptying into the 100-kilometre (62 mi)-long Kootenay Lake. The lake is also joined by the Duncan River, the river's highest-volume tributary. Near Balfour an arm of the lake branches westward to Nelson, where the Kootenay River exits the lake below Corra Linn Dam. The final westbound stretch of the river flows through a deep canyon, forming several waterfalls including Bonnington Falls, where four run-of-the river hydroelectric dams impound the river. Near Brilliant the Kootenay forms a small inland delta then enters the Columbia River near Castlegar.[16][17]
Watershed
At 50,298 square kilometres (19,420 sq mi), the Kootenay river's
The Kootenay is the third largest tributary of the Columbia by both watershed size and discharge.
The Kootenay River watershed is defined by rugged parallel mountain ranges of the Rockies, which direct drainage along a northwest-southeast axis. The only large areas of flat land are in the Kootenay River valley from Bonners Ferry, Idaho to Kootenay Lake, and in parts of the Rocky Mountain Trench from Canal Flats to Lake Koocanusa.
Many river basins border the Kootenay—some are part of the Columbia Basin, while others drain to distant shores of the North American continent. On the south and southeast, the divide formed by the Cabinet and Whitefish ranges separate the Kootenay and
Geology
The geologic story of the Kootenay is strongly connected to the geology of the Columbia, Selkirk, and Rocky Mountains. The mountains in much of the Kootenay River catchment are composed of Precambrian sedimentary rock of the Belt Supergroup, in turn, stratified into several subgroups with slightly different characteristics and ages.[25] However, most of the rocks have one thing in common; the rocks are generally hard and erosion-resistant.[26] The Rocky Mountain Trench is thought to be a partial graben, or a long narrow strip of land that has dropped in elevation over time because of parallel faults on both sides.[27] Faults in the Kootenay River watershed trend north-northwest to south-southeast as is common in much of British Columbia. The underlying rock is generally stable and contains more outcroppings of metamorphic and igneous rock as one progresses westwards.[28] Formations of Cambrian and Devonian rock also appear in small amounts in the U.S. portion of the Kootenay.[26]
History
First inhabitants
The First Peoples of the Kootenay River valley (the residents at the time of European contact) were the
The origin and meaning of the name "Kootenai" are uncertain. Before their discovery by Europeans, they were known as Ksanka, "people of the standing arrow".
Exploration
In 1806, explorer
Through the early 19th century, Thompson continued to trade furs throughout the Kootenay region for the North West Company,[39] and for the few years when he had a total monopoly over the Canadian fur trade west of the Rockies, he outlawed alcoholic drinks altogether. He was known to have written, "I had made it a law to myself that no alcohol should pass the mountains in my company".[40] When two of Thompson's trading partners tried to make him take two barrels of rum to Kootanae House, Thompson "placed the two kegs on a vicious horse and by noon the kegs were empty and in pieces, the horse rubbing his load against the rocks to get rid of it … I told them what I had done, and that I would do the same to every keg of alcohol."[41] Of course, wine, beer, rum, and other intoxicating drinks were imported in time.
John Palliser crossed the Rockies through a pass in 1858 that led to the headwaters of the Palliser River, a tributary of the Kootenay River now named in his honor. (However, at first, his party referred to it as Palliser's River.) His expedition made it downstream to Columbia Lake but had some trouble making their way back to Alberta; the return route they had chosen proved too dangerous to negotiate. After trading for some horses and new supplies from a band of Ktunaxa, they made it back over the Rockies later that year through North Kootenay Pass near Lower and Upper Kananaskis Lakes, after traveling up the Elk River.[42] The series of expeditions he would later lead through 1859 were to be known as the
In September 1859, Palliser traveled into the Kootenay River valley to find a suitable path for a trade route and possibly a railroad. Instead of crossing the Rockies, as Thompson did, Palliser set out from Fort Colville, a Hudson's Bay Company trading post near Kettle Falls on the Columbia River.[44] He then proceeded up the Pend Oreille River (noted as 'Pendoreilles') and crossed into the Kootenay River valley, which in his records was either the "Kootanie" or "Flat Bow River".[45] Kootenay Lake was called "Flat Bow Lake". Palliser was told by Ktunaxa tribal members that a trail already existed along the Kootenay River, terminating at Columbia Lake, but was in decrepit condition (having been out of use for many years) and "entirely impracticable for horses".[46] They re-blazed the trail for many miles and returned to Kootenay Lake by mid-October of the same year.[47] The expedition's findings were later to become important transportation routes through the Rockies to the Kootenays area, and the trail that they followed later became the route of the Canadian Pacific Railway.[48]
Gold and silver boom
In 1863, a gold strike at the confluence of the
Fisherville, which had a Hudson's Bay post and other businesses, continued on with a few hundred residents for a few years (most of them Chinese by the end, as was the case with many other BC gold towns also) but was eclipsed as a supply centre with the creation of nearby
Steamboats
When the
Because of the rugged terrain and rough waters on the two rivers, especially on the glacier-fed Kootenay, steamboat operation was extremely difficult and proved to be anything but cost-effective. The roughest water was in Jennings Canyon, now mostly submerged in the
The last ship ever to pass through the canal and one of the last on the Kootenay was the North Star, also piloted by Captain Armstrong. In 1902, Armstrong decided to take North Star to sail on the Columbia instead, finding business on the Kootenay less and less profitable as the mines in the region played out, as the CPR established its Kootenay Central Railway branch,[58] and for a variety of other reasons.[65] In June of that year, Armstrong took North Star to the Baillie-Grohman Canal, which was in decrepit condition. The lock was also too small to accommodate the vessel. Armstrong had two makeshift dams built to create a temporary lock 40 metres (130 ft) long, and then the forward dam was blown up so the ship could ride the surge of water ahead into Columbia Lake.[64][66] The transit of North Star to Columbia Lake was the last time the canal was ever used by a steamboat and marked the end of the steamboat era on the Kootenay.[58]
Doukhobor settlement
In the 20th century, members of a Russian religious sect called the
When they first arrived in British Columbia, the Doukhobors began felling trees in the Kootenay River valley to build their first
However, Doukhobor views on education and the extremist actions of a Doukhobor group called the
Ecology
The
In the Canadian portion of the
Riparian vegetation is mostly found along the lower two-thirds of the Kootenay and many of the tributaries that join within the United States.
Naturally, the Kootenay has a high sediment content because of high erosion of glacial sediments in the mountains. Because of the steep rapids and falls between Kootenay Lake and the river's mouth, the Kootenay (with the exception of its tributary, the Slocan River)[92] has never been a significant stream for the annual runs of Columbia River salmon. However, landlocked salmon inhabit the upper reaches of the river above and in Kootenay Lake.[93] This is attributed to a Kootenay River flood a long time ago, before the construction of any dams on the Columbia (Columbia River dams now block salmon from reaching any of the salmon run streams above Chief Joseph Dam[94] ) which overflowed into Columbia Lake. It was with the creation of this temporary body of water that salmon somehow managed to swim over the submerged Canal Flats and into the Kootenay, where they became trapped.[93][95]
Populations of large land mammals such as caribou, moose, deer, elk, have been declining dramatically since the reintroduction of wolves. Species almost entirely gone that were once common in the area include the
Economy
Even before non-aboriginal people came to the region, the Kootenay River valley was an important path of trade and transport between the tribes of the Canadian Rockies and the Idaho Panhandle, mostly between the Ktunaxa (who practiced agriculture and
Logging began in the 19th century as a result of white emigration to the Kootenay region, and remains one of the primary industries of the area.[99] In fact, much of the economy of the Pacific Northwest and Columbia Basin has historically been, and continues to be, to this day, dependent on the lumber industry.[100] Lumber was required for the construction of buildings, forts, railroad tracks, and boats, and today is exported from the region in great amounts providing jobs and income for inhabitants of the area. Even in relatively uninhabited regions of the watershed,
To a limited extent, the Kootenay River has also been used for navigation. Commercial navigation began with steamboats in the 19th century to transport ores, lumber, passengers and other imported and exported products between the Kootenay River valley and the Canadian Pacific Railway station at Golden, British Columbia. Boat travel on the upper river ceased when a rail line was built along the Kootenay upstream of the big bend. Steamboats also operated briefly on the lower river and Kootenay Lake to service silver mines in the nearby mountains.[102] In modern times, boats continue to ply Kootenay Lake and limited reaches of the Kootenay River.
Mining is also an important economic sector of the Kootenay River area.[99] Although originally valuable minerals such as gold and silver were unearthed, today coal is the primary resource extracted from underground. Conventional coal deposits underlie much of the East Kootenay, especially in the Elk River valley which is home to the Elk Valley Coalfield,[103] and the Crowsnest Coalfield in the Purcell Mountains.[104] The East Kootenay is the most important coal-producing area of British Columbia,[105] has since 1898 produced over 500 million tons,[105] and about 25 percent of the world's steel-making coal comes from the region.[106] Most of the coal from the East Kootenay coalfields is exported to Japan and Korea.[107]
Lead, zinc, copper and silver are still mined at some places in the Kootenay River basin, notably at the giant Sullivan Mine near Kimberley, British Columbia, which is the largest in the Kootenay watershed.[101] Agriculture, however, is a much less important industry, and many of the fertile riverside lands have been flooded by the construction of dams (most notably Libby Dam in Montana, which backs water into Canada). Only about two percent of the entire Kootenay basin (1,005 square kilometres (388 sq mi) is used for agriculture, and much of that is for pasture and foraging). Crops such as oats, barley and wheat account for 62 percent of the agricultural output of the region, much of which is used locally or exported by rail. The primary agricultural region is the Kootenai Valley of northern Idaho south of Kootenay Lake.[101]
The West Kootenay, however, is transitioning from a coal-mining to a tourism-based economy,[108] and the rest of the Kootenay region is also starting to do so. The economy of southeastern British Columbia is becoming increasingly reliant on tourism, and several Canadian national and state parks have already been established, and several national forests in the U.S.
River modifications
Dams, power plants and diversions of the Kootenay River, of which there are many, have been built for a variety of reasons throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.[109] The seven dams on the Kootenay serve many purposes, ranging from generation of local electricity to regulation of Columbia River flow between Canada and the United States. None provide for navigation or fish passage. In former times, the Kootenay would rise each spring and early summers with "enormous freshets that every summer flood the Kootenay River valley",.[110] Such extreme variations are no longer common on the river below Libby Dam.
The Falls
As early as 1898, without building a dam, the original Lower Bonnington Power Plant was generating hydroelectricity from Bonnington Falls in the Kootenay River near the confluence of the Slocan River in order to supply water to mines in Rossland, British Columbia.[111][112] For Upper Bonnington, the first dam built on the river, the original goal was to improve navigation between Kootenay Lake and the Kootenay's mouth on the Columbia by drowning the dangerous Bonnington Falls rapids that also blocked fish migration, and hopefully introducing fish to the upper river by constructing a fish ladder. None of these amenities for steamboats or salmon were ever constructed — in fact, the dam ended up being built above the falls instead of below them— and Upper Bonnington Dam, when completed in 1906, only generated hydroelectric power, and has served that purpose ever since.[112][113]
Commercial demand led to two more dams at the falls, these were South Slocan Dam in 1928,[114] and Corra Linn Dam, at the rapids above Bonnington in 1932.[115] Three of the dams are of the run-of-the-river type, the 4.5 km length of the falls is now impounded in small lakes. All except Corra Linn, which was built to raise and regulate the level of Kootenay Lake. The Kootenay Canal Generating Station, completed in 1976 by BC Hydro, has its inlet at Kootenay Lake next to Corra Linn. The canal travels several kilometers, parallel to and above the river to utilize the roughly 84-metre (276 ft) high water drop in elevation between Kootenay Lake and South Slocan, bypassing the old dams. The canal is used to generate hydroelectricity, as are the four dams.[116]
The Lower River
After the falls and the junction with the Slocan River the last 18 kilometres (11 mi) of the river is a gradual slope to the merger with the Columbia. In 1944 the last privately owned development Brilliant Dam was built, just 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) before the Kootenay river flows into the Columbia River at Castlegar.[117]
Columbia River Treaty
The
Solely built for the purpose of regulating water flow into Kootenay Lake, Duncan Dam, the first dam built for the treaty, was raised in 1967 and increased the 25-kilometre (16 mi) long size of
Diversion proposal
In the 1970s, it was proposed that the Kootenay River be diverted into the Columbia River (the two rivers are separated by a distance of no more than 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) near Canal Flats in the Rocky Mountain Trench in southeastern British Columbia). This would allow for the generation of increased hydroelectric power on the Columbia. It would also make easier the reclamation of the Kootenay Flats, an area south of Kootenay Lake, for agricultural purposes—spring freshets once raised the level of the lake by up to 8 metres (26 ft), inundating the lowlands around it.[56][125] There were also never-implemented plans to divert part of the Kootenay enlarged Columbia River through a tunnel to the headwaters of the Thompson River in the northwest, and thence to the Fraser River valley of southwestern British Columbia.[126]
The proposal was strongly opposed by both environmentalists as well as local residents. The economy of southeastern British Columbia is strongly dependent on tourism, with the Columbia River, including Columbia Lake and Windermere Lake, being very popular for summer swimming and boating activities. Diversion of the glacier-fed Kootenay River would have resulted in the Columbia River becoming much deeper and colder, flooding riverside communities and damaging tourism. At the opposite end of the scale, it would dry the bed of the Kootenay River downstream of Canal Flats, cutting off water supply to residents of the upper Kootenay Valley and invalidating the effectiveness of Libby Dam, whose construction was to begin in a few years. As a result, this proposed river diversion was never undertaken.[127][128][129]
Recreation
Parks
Many national, provincial and state parks, wilderness preserves, protected areas and national forests lie partially or wholly within the Kootenay River watershed. In Canada, these include those listed below as well as many others.[130]
- Bugaboo Provincial Park
- Creston Valley Wildlife Management Area
- Gilnockie Provincial Park
- Goat Range Provincial Park
- Kianuko Provincial Park
- Kokanee Glacier Provincial Park
- Kootenai Falls County Park
- Kootenay National Park
- Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park
- Purcell Wilderness Conservancy Provincial Park and Protected Area
- St. Mary's Alpine Provincial Park
- Top of the World Provincial Park
- Valhalla Provincial Park
- West Arm Provincial Park
Popular Banff National Park lies just across the BC-Alberta border, Yoho National Park sits to the north, and Glacier National Park in the northeast. The U.S. portion of the watershed includes Kootenai National Forest[131] and
In Kootenay National Park alone, there are over 200 kilometres (120 mi) of hiking trails, ranging from short day hikes to long
Fishing
Fishing is generally good on the middle reaches of the Kootenay River and in Kootenay Lake.
Boating
Steep and strewn with rapids, the Kootenay, despite being unsuitable for commercial transportation of agricultural and mineral products, is considered an outstanding whitewater river.
Rafting the middle Kootenay between Libby Dam and Bonners Ferry is best at flows of 230 to 340 cubic metres per second (8,000 to 12,000 cu ft/s).[147] The run, about 60 kilometres (37 mi) from east to west, includes Class IV+ rapids and includes Kootenai Falls, which rarely has been run safely, in the middle of its course.[148] In Montana, the river is rated a Class I water under the Montana Stream Access Law for recreational purposes from Libby Dam to the Montana-Idaho border. Class I represents bodies of water that are navigable and suitable for recreation.[149]
Rafting is also popular in some of the Canadian stretches of the river, especially those near the headwaters that have the steepest gradient and the most challenging rapids. Several Canadian outfitters provide trips on the river near Kootenay National Park ranging from a few hours to several days. Canoeing in the numerous sloughs, side-channels and distributaries of the Kootenay that thread through the wetlands of the Kootenay Flats has the additional benefit of watching birds and wildlife in the Creston Valley Wildlife Management Unit and other surrounding marshes.[150] Larger craft such as houseboats are able to travel on Kootenay and Koocanusa Lakes. Rafting and kayaking is also an activity on the swift-flowing Slocan River, the lowermost major tributary of the Kootenay, and in parts of other major Kootenay tributaries as well.[151]
See also
- Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes
- Dewdney Trail
- List of crossings of the Kootenay River
- List of dams in the Columbia River watershed
- List of longest rivers of Canada
- List of longest streams of Idaho
- List of rivers of British Columbia
- List of rivers of Idaho
- List of rivers of Montana
- List of tributaries of the Columbia River
- Montana Stream Access Law
References
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- ^ Peet, Stephen Denison (1893). The American antiquarian and oriental journal. Vol. 15. Jameson and Morse.
- ^ Jenish, p. 139
- ^ a b Palliser, John (1863). Exploration - British North America - the journals, detailed reports, and observations relative to the exploration, by Captain Palliser, of that portion of British North America, which, in latitude, lies between the British boundary line and the height of land or watershed of the northern or ... G.E. Eyre and W. Spottiswoode for H.M. Stationery Off. p. 162.
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- ^ a b Characterization of Biomes, p. 87
- ^ The Canadian portion of the Columbia basin encompasses 102,823 square kilometres (39,700 sq mi) of which 50,298 square kilometres (19,420 sq mi) drain to the Kootenay River
- ^ The usage of the term "Canadian portion of the Columbia Basin" in this article denotes any parts of the Columbia River watershed that drain to the Columbia upstream of where it crosses the Canada-US border, regardless if the tributary passes through the United States as well (such as the Kootenay). Under this usage, for example, the Kootenay, which originates in Canada, flows back to the US, and returns to Canada, is considered part of the "Canadian portion", whereas the Okanogan River, which begins in Canada but joins the Columbia in the US, is not part of the "Canadian portion". The Clark Fork-Pend Oreille system, whose watershed is almost entirely within the United States, is considered part of the "Canadian portion" because the Pend Oreille meets the Columbia just north of the border.
- ^ "Introduction to Species". Wildlife Habitat Relationships in BC's Columbia Basin. Archived from the original on 2010-03-26. Retrieved 2010-04-17.
- ^ a b "Columbia Glaciated". World Wildlife Foundation and Nature Conservancy. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World. Archived from the original on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2010-04-17.
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Works cited
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Further reading
- Sullivan, Gordon (2008). Saving Homewaters: The Story of Montana's Streams and Rivers. Woodstock, VT: The Countryman Press. ISBN 978-0-88150-679-2.