Korean cuisine

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"Hansik" redirects here. For the Korean food festival, see Cold Food Festival § South Korea.

Hanjeongsik
, Korean-style delicate and fine dining
Bulgogi, Korean-style marinated sliced meat
Naengmyeon, Korean-style cold noodles with buckwheat
Tteokguk, Korean New Year soup with rice cake
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Korean cuisine is the set of foods and culinary styles which are associated with

Korean culture. This cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in Korea and southern Manchuria, Korean cuisine reflects a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends.[1][2]

Korean cuisine is largely based on

gochugaru (pepper flakes), gochujang (fermented red chili paste) and napa cabbage
.

Ingredients and dishes vary by province. Many regional dishes have become national. Korean royal court cuisine once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Foods are regulated by Korean cultural etiquette.

UNESCO Intangible Heritage List.[4]

History

Main article: History of Korean cuisine
Further information: History of Korea

Prehistoric

In the Jeulmun pottery period (approximately 8000 to 1500 BCE), hunter-gatherer societies engaged in fishing and hunting, and incipient agriculture in the later stages.[1] Since the beginning of the Mumun pottery period (1500 BCE), agricultural traditions began to develop with new migrant groups from the Liao River basin of Manchuria. During the Mumun period, people grew millet, barley, wheat, legumes and rice, and continued to hunt and fish. Archaeological remains point to development of fermented beans during this period, and cultural contact with nomadic cultures to the north facilitated domestication of animals.

Three Kingdoms period

In a mural of Gakjeochong (각저총 "Tombs of Wrestlers"),[5] a Goguryeo tomb built around the 5th century shows a Goguryeo nobleman having a meal with two ladies.[6]

The Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE – 668 CE) was one of rapid cultural evolution. The kingdom of Goguryeo (37 BCE – 668 CE) was located in the northern part of the peninsula along much of modern-day Manchuria. The second kingdom, Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE), was in the southwestern portion of the peninsula, and the third, Silla (57 BCE – 935 CE), was located at the southeastern portion of the peninsula. Each region had its own distinct set of cultural practices and foods. For example, Baekje was known for cold foods and fermented foods like kimchi. The spread of Buddhism and Confucianism through cultural exchanges with China during the fourth century CE began to change the distinct cultures of Korea.[7]

Attributed with the earliest kimchi, the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.[8]

Goryeo period

Silver spoon and chopsticks entombed with King Injong in 1146

During the latter Goryeo period, the Mongols invaded Goryeo in the 13th century. Some traditional foods found today in Korea have their origins during this period. The dumpling dish, mandu, grilled meat dishes, noodle dishes, and the use of seasonings such as black pepper, all have their roots in this period.[9]

Joseon period

Agricultural innovations were significant and widespread during this period, such as the invention of the rain gauge during the 15th century. During 1429, the government began publishing books on agriculture and farming techniques, which included

King Sejong.[10][11]

A series of invasions in the earlier half of the Joseon caused a dynamic shift in the culture during the second half of the period. Groups of

squash. Potatoes and sweet potatoes were particularly favored as they grew in soils and on terrains that were previously unused.[12]

Government further developed agriculture through technology and lower taxation. Complex

irrigation systems built by government allowed peasant farmers to produce larger crop volumes and produce crops not only for sustenance but also as cash crops. Reduced taxation of the peasantry also furthered the expanded commerce through increasing periodic markets, usually held every five days. One thousand such markets existed in the 19th century, and were communal centers for economic trade and entertainment.[13]

The end of the Joseon period was marked by consistent encouragement to trade with the Western world, China and Japan. In the 1860s, trade agreements pushed by the Japanese government led the

Joseon dynasty to open its trade ports with the west, and to numerous treaties with the United States, Britain, France, and other Western countries.[14]

The opening of Korea to the Western world brought further exchange of culture and food. Western missionaries introduced new ingredients and dishes to Korea. Joseon elites were introduced to these new foods by way of foreigners who attended the royal court as advisers or physicians. This period also saw the introduction of various seasonings imported from Japan via western traders and alcoholic drinks from China.[15]

Colonial period to modern period

Main articles: South Korean cuisine and North Korean cuisine
Budae jjigae
, a spicy stew originated during the Korean War.
Korean chicken dish (Jjimdak) in Sydney, Australia

Japan occupied the

Japanese Empire's war efforts. Many Koreans, in turn, increased the production of other grains for their own consumption.[16]

Meals during the Japanese occupation were quite varied. Koreans usually ate two meals a day during the cold seasons, and three during the warm seasons. For the lower classes, satiety, rather than quality, was most important. Those in even lower economic levels were likely to enjoy only a single bowl of white rice each year, while the remainder of the year's meals consisted of cheaper grains, such as millet and barley.[17] For the Korean middle and upper classes during the occupation, things were quite different. Western foods began emerging in the Korean diet, such as white bread and commercially produced staples such as precooked noodles. The Japanese occupational period ended after the defeat of Japan during World War II.[18]

The country remained in a state of turmoil through the

budae jjigae, which makes use of inexpensive meats such as sausage and Spam
, originated during this period.

At this point, the history of North and South Korea sharply diverged. In the 1960s under President Park Chung Hee, industrialization began to give South Korea the economic and cultural power it holds in the global economy today. Agriculture was increased through use of commercial fertilizers and modern farming equipment. In the 1970s, food shortages began to lessen. Consumption of instant and processed foods increased, as did the overall quality of foods. Livestock and dairy production was increased during the 1970s through the increase of commercial dairies and mechanized farms.[19] The consumption of pork and beef increased vastly in the 1970s. Per-capita consumption of meat was 3.6 kg in 1961 and 11 kg by 1979. The result of this increased meat consumption brought about the rise of bulgogi restaurants, which gave the middle class of South Korea the ability to enjoy meat regularly. Meat eating continued to rise, reaching 40 kg in 1997, with fish consumption at 49.5 kg in 1998. Rice consumption continually decreased through these years, from 128 kg consumed per person in 1985 to 106 kg in 1995 and 83 kg in 2003. The decrease in rice consumption has been accompanied by an increase in the consumption of bread and noodles.[20] In 2009, the South Korean government launched a $77-million culinary diplomacy program called "Korean Cuisine to the World" to promote its cuisine and subsequently pivoted into the markets in the United States and Muslim countries.[21][22]

Food

Grains

doves sent by his mother after establishing the kingdom of Goguryeo.[23] Yet another myth speaks of the three founding deities of Jeju Island, who were to be wed to the three princesses of Tamna; the deities brought seeds of five grains which were the first seeds planted, which in turn became the first instance of farming.[24]

During the pre-modern era, grains such as barley and millet were the main staples. They were supplemented by wheat, sorghum, and buckwheat. Rice is not an indigenous crop to Korea and millet was likely the preferred grain before rice was cultivated. Rice became the grain of choice during the Three Kingdoms period, particularly in the Silla and Baekje Kingdoms in the southern regions of the peninsula. Rice was such an important commodity in Silla that it was used to pay taxes. The Sino-Korean word for "tax" is a compound character that uses the character for the rice plant. The preference for rice escalated into the Joseon period, when new methods of cultivation and new varieties emerged that would help increase production.[25]

As rice was prohibitively expensive when it first came to Korea, the grain was likely mixed with other grains to "stretch" the rice; this is still done in dishes such as boribap (rice with barley) and kongbap (rice with beans).[26] White rice, which is rice with the bran removed, has been the preferred form of rice since its introduction into the cuisine. The most traditional method of cooking the rice has been to cook it in an iron pot called a sot (솥) or musoe sot (무쇠솥). This method of rice cookery dates back to at least the Goryeo period, and these pots have even been found in tombs from the Silla period. The sot is still used today, much in the same manner as it was in the past centuries.[27]

Rice is used to make a number of items, outside of the traditional bowl of plain white rice. It is commonly ground into a flour and used to make rice cakes called

misu-garu, drinks made from grain powder that are sometimes used as meal supplements.[28]

Fruits

Encompassing a wide range of temperate climates, the Korean peninsula supports the growth of many cultivated and wild fruit species. Asian pears of numerous varieties, apples, melons and berries and more are typical of summer and fall produce.[29]

Legumes

Kongguksu
, a cold noodle dish with a broth made from ground soy beans

ganjang, chili pepper paste or gochujang and others.[33][34]

nokdumuk
(a mung bean starch jelly) and vegetables

tangpyeongchae.[37]

Cultivation of

patbap, which is a bowl of rice mixed with the beans, or as a filling and covering for tteok (rice cake) and breads. A porridge made with azuki beans, called patjuk, is commonly eaten during the winter season. On Dongjinal, a Korean traditional holiday which falls on December 22, Korean people eat donji patjuk, which contains saealsim (새알심), a ball made from glutinous rice flour. In old Korean tradition, patjuk is believed to have the power to drive evil spirits away.[38][39]

Condiments and seasoning

ganjang, doenjang, gochujang and vinegars. Nonfermented condiments or spices include red pepper, black pepper, cordifolia, mustard, chinensis, garlic, onion, ginger, leek, and scallion (spring onion).[40]

Gochujang

Gochujang can be found in many writings. Some of the writings are the Mangi Yoram [ko], The Three States, the Nonggawolryeongga, the Gijaejapgi, and the Hyangyak-jipsongbang [ko]. The Hyangyak-jipseongbang, which dates back to around 1433 during the Chosun dynasty, is one of the oldest writings mentioning gochujang.

Gochujang is a fermented bean paste that has red pepper powder, soybean powder and rice flour added to it to create a spicy paste. It typically can be added to most dishes. Gochujang can be used as a seasoning and sometimes as a dipping sauce.

Many variations come from jang, fermented bean paste. Some variations can include

kanjang (soybeans, water, and salt), chogochujang (gochujang and vinegar), and jeotgal
(mixture of other jangs and seafoods).

Vegetables such as cucumbers, carrots, and cabbage use gochujang as a dip. Gochujang is a common seasoning for foods such as Korean barbecue including pork and beef. One popular snack food that is very commonly eaten with gochujang is bibimbap. Bibimbap includes rice, spinach, radish, bean sprouts. Sometimes beef is added to bibimbap. Another popular dish including gochujang is tteokbokki.

Gochujang was believed to revitalize people who were sick with colds or exhaustion during the Gio period. There have been some studies that show that red peppers fight obesity and diabetes. Gochujang is also added to many foods so that there can be additional nutritional value with each meal.[41][42]

Meat

Koreans enjoying grilled meat and alcohol in the 18th century
See also: List of Korean dishes § Meat-based dishes

In antiquity, most meat in Korea was likely obtained through hunting and fishing. Ancient records indicate rearing of livestock began on a small scale during the Three Kingdoms period. Meat was consumed roasted or in soups or stews during this period. Those who lived closer to the oceans were able to complement their diet with more fish, while those who lived in the interior had a diet containing more meat.[43]

Beef

Marinated galbi before grilling

Beef is the most prized of all, with cattle holding an important cultural role in the Korean home. Beef is prepared in numerous ways today, including roasting, grilling (gui) or boiling in soups. Beef can also be dried into yukpo, a type of po, as with seafood, called eopo.[44]

The cattle were valuable draught animals, often seen as equal to human servants, or in some cases, members of the family. Cattle were also given their own holiday during the first 'cow' day of the

Mongols dispensed with the ban of beef during the 13th century, and they promoted the production of beef cattle. This increased production continued into the Joseon period, when the government encouraged both increased quantities and quality of beef.[45]
Only in the latter part of the 20th century has beef become regular table fare.

Chicken

alcoholic beverages, especially soju.[46][47]

Pork

Samgyeopsal

Pork has also been another important land-based protein for Korea. Records indicate pork has been a part of the Korean diet back to antiquity, similar to beef.[48]

A number of foods have been avoided while eating pork, including

lotus root (yeonn ppuri, 연뿌리), as the combinations have been thought to cause diarrhea. All parts of the pig are used in Korean cuisine, including the head, intestines, liver, kidney and other internal organs. Koreans utilize these parts in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, stewing, boiling and smoking.[46] Koreans especially like to eat grilled pork belly, which is called samgyeopsal.[46]

Fish and seafood

See also: List of Korean dishes § Fish-based dishes, and Jeotgal
A bowl of gejang, marinated crabs in soy sauce and plates of various banchan (small side dishes)

shrimp, clams, oysters, abalone, and loach, while sheep and hogs were reserved for the upper class.[49]

Both fresh and saltwater fish are popular, and are served raw, grilled, broiled, dried or served in soups and stews. Common grilled fish include

anchovies (myeolchi) and croaker.[49] Dried anchovies, along with kelp, form the basis of common soup stocks.[50]

Shellfish is widely eaten in all different types of preparation. They can be used to prepare

squid.[54]

Vegetables

miyeok
See also: List of Korean dishes § Vegetable-based dishes

Korean cuisine uses a wide variety of vegetables, which are often served uncooked, either in salads or

samgyetang
.

Medicinal foods

Medicinal food (boyangshik) is a wide variety of specialty foods prepared and eaten for their purported medicinal purposes, especially during the hottest 30-day period in the lunar calendar, called sambok. Hot foods consumed are believed to restore ki, as well as sexual and physical stamina lost in the summer heat.[57][58] Commonly eaten boyangshik include ginseng, chicken, black goat, abalone, eel, carp, beef bone soups, pig kidneys.[59][60]

Samgyetang

Samgyetang is a chicken ginseng soup traditionally consumed during Boknal (복날) days: the hottest days of summer. It is a Korean custom to eat hot food in hot weather called Iyeolchiyeol (이열치열), which means "controlling heat with heat". Consequently, Samgyetang is Koreans' favorite energizing food and it is common to have it on sambok (삼복) days — Chobok (초복), Jungbok (중복) and Malbok (말복) — which are believed to be the hottest days in Korea.

Dishes

See also:
List of North Korean dishes

Korean foods can be largely categorized into groups of "main

juk (porridge), and guksu
(noodles).

Many Korean banchan rely on fermentation for flavor and preservation, resulting in a tangy, salty, and spicy taste. Certain regions are especially associated with some dishes (for example, the city of Jeonju with bibimbap) either as a place of origin or for a famous regional variety. Restaurants will often use these famous names on their signs or menus (e.g. "Suwon galbi").

Soups and stews

See also: List of Korean dishes § Soups and stews
Tteokguk, soup made with tteok, rice cake. It is also called New Year's soup.

tang, often served as the main dish of the meal. Jjigae are a thicker, heavier seasoned soups or stews.[61]

Some popular types of soups are:

Stews are referred to as

sundubu jjigae).[65]

  • Miyeok-guk. This soup is made of dried seaweed according to 조선요리제법, it says it is usually made by frying 미역 with beef pouring water and making the soup. Adding mussel can make it taste better. Also in coastal areas they use fish instead of beef too. It is usually consumed on Koreans birthday, specifically on samchil day (삼칠일: a resting period after giving birth to the newborn); baek-il (백일: the 100th day after a baby is born); doljanchi (돌잔치: the baby's first birthday). The Korean tradition of mothers eating seaweed after birth originated in Goguryeo.[66] The Korean word for seaweed, miyeok, originated in Goguryeo.[67]

Kimchi

Main article: Kimchi
Baek-kimchi

Kimchi refers to often fermented vegetable dishes, usually made with napa cabbage, Korean radish, or sometimes cucumber. There are 4 types of raw materials which are major ones: spices, seasonings, and other additional materials. Red and black pepper, cinnamon, garlic, ginger, onion, and mustard are the example of spices.[68][69][70] There are endless varieties with regional variations, and it is served as a side dish or cooked into soups and rice dishes. In the late 15th century, it depicted Korean's custom that Korean ancestors buried kimchi jars in the ground for storage for the entire winter season, as fermented foods can keep for several years.[71] These were stored in traditional Korean mud pots known as jangdokdae, although with the advent of refrigerators, special kimchi freezers and commercially produced kimchi, this practice has become less common. Kimchi is a vegetable-based food which includes low calorie, low fat, and no cholesterol. Also, it is a rich source of various vitamins and minerals. It contains vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, and vitamin K and minerals which are calcium, iron, phosphorus, and selenium. The same lactobacilli bacteria found in yogurt and other fermented dairy products are also found in kimchi.[72] In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily.[73]

Noodles

Japchae, a kind of Korean noodle dish made with marinated beef and vegetables in soy sauce and sesame oil.
Main article: Korean noodles

Noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine are collectively referred to as guksu in native Korean or myeon in hanja. While noodles were eaten in Korea from ancient times, productions of wheat was less than other crops, so wheat noodles did not become a daily food until 1945.[74][75] Wheat noodles (milguksu) were specialty foods for birthdays, weddings or auspicious occasions because the long and continued shape were thought to be associated with the bliss for longevity and long-lasting marriage.[74]

In Korean traditional noodle dishes are onmyeon or guksu jangguk (noodles with a hot clear broth),

kongguksu (noodles with a cold soybean broth), japchae (cellophane noodles made from sweet potato with various vegetables) and others. In royal court, baekmyeon (literally "white noodles") consisting of buckwheat noodles and pheasant broth, was regarded as the top quality noodle dish. Naengmyeon with a cold soup mixed with dongchimi (watery radish kimchi) and beef brisket broth was eaten in court during summer.[74]

  • Jajangmyeon, a staple Koreanized Chinese noodle dish, is extremely popular in Korea as fast, take-out food. It is made with a black bean sauce usually fried with diced pork or seafood and a variety of vegetables, including zucchini and potatoes. It is popularly ordered and delivered, like Chinese take-out food in other parts of the world.
  • Ramyeon refers to Korean instant noodles similar to ramen
    .
  • Japchae is a dish made by inserting in boiling water roasted vegetables, mushrooms and meat, each of them roasted. This is one of the most popular dishes in Korean tradition enjoyed on special occasion like weddings, holidays and birthday. There are two types of Japchae, one that includes glass noodles and another without noodles. According to the Korean cookbook Diminbang 음식디미방 (around 1670), there is only the recipe without glass noodles. The original recipe without glass noodles is made by boiling vegetables such as cucumbers, pine mushrooms, bean sprouts, bellflowers green onion, then they are sprinkled with ginger, pepper, sesame oil, and flour. The sauce is made by boiling minced pink meat and soybean paste that is lightly filtered with sesame oil and flour. To match the name more than 20 ingredients were used. In Gyongon Yoram [규곤요람閨壼要覽 (1896)] is also recorded japchae seasoned with mustard sauce without glass noodles. However, since the 1930s, appears the japchae recipe with glass noodles alongside the original recipe. Also, during the Joseon dynasty [조선요리법朝鮮料理法] the recipe of japchae, with and without glass noodles, was added to the cookbook. Also, there is also a variant of japchae with meat, or one with abalone or other seafood in 1930s.It is a local food that shows the traditional recipe. In the Jinju region, Jamung-sam, Yokimun, is a local dish with soy sauce and sesame oil, and the seafood, such as octopus, skates, and mixed several vegetables stained in oil. Because it uses various ingredients, it has high calorie, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, and sufficient nutritional. It is the first item to choose when you want a feast table.

Banchan

Banchan is a term referring collectively to side dishes in Korean cuisine. Soups and stews are not considered banchan.

Bulgogi, a grilled Korean dish; the meat and vegetables shown here have not yet been grilled.

Gui are grilled dishes, which most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetable ingredients. At traditional restaurants, meats are cooked at the center of the table over a charcoal grill, surrounded by various banchan and individual rice bowls. The cooked meat is then cut into small pieces and wrapped with fresh lettuce leaves, with rice, thinly sliced garlic, ssamjang (a mixture of gochujang and dwenjang), and other seasonings. The suffix gui is often omitted in the names of meat-based gui such as galbi, the name of which was originally galbi gui.

ganjang
while seon is made with vegetable stuffed with fillings.

Hoe (raw dishes): although the term originally referred to any kind of raw dish, it is generally used to refer to saengseonhweh (생선회, raw fish dishes). It is dipped in gochujang, or soy sauce with wasabi, and served with lettuce or perilla
leaves.

Bindaeddeok

Jeon (or buchimgae) is a Korean savory pancake made from various ingredients. Chopped kimchi or seafood is mixed into a wheat flour-based batter, and then pan fried. This dish is typically dipped in a mixture of soy sauce, vinegar, and red pepper powder. It can be served as an appetizer, side dish (banchan) or accompanied by alcohol (anju).

There are some sweet varieties called Hwajeon (화전) which means flower pancakes.

Cooking oils such as soy and corn are used today, though technology required for producing these oils was not available during the Joseon dynasty.

Namul

Namul may refer to either saengchae (생채, literally "fresh vegetables") or sukchae (숙채, literally "heated vegetables"), although the term generally indicates the latter. Saengchae is mostly seasoned with vinegar, chili pepper powder and salt to give a tangy and refreshing taste. On the other hand, sukchae (숙채) is blanched and seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil, chopped garlic, or sometimes chili pepper powder.

Anju (side dishes accompanying alcoholic beverages)

Jokbal : pig's feet, a type of Anju.

dubu kimchi (tofu with kimchi), peanuts, odeng/ohmuk, sora (소라) (a kind of shellfish popular in street food tents), and nakji (small octopus) and Jokbal
(pig's leg served with salted shrimp sauce). Samgyupsal (pork belly) is also considered as Anju with Soju. Most Korean foods can be considered as 'anju', as the food consumed alongside the alcohol depends on the diner's taste and preferences.

Holiday food

Songpyeon

Songpyeon

Songpyeon is a Korean dish made of rice powder mostly eaten during Chuseok to express gratitude towards ancestors. Songpyeon recordings appear from the 17th century. It is said in 『Yorok 要 錄』, "Make rice cakes with white rice flour, steam them with pine and pine needles and wash them off with water." At the beginning of Songpyeon, rice cakes were made simply with white rice powder, pine needles were steamed and then washed in water. It is said that "red beans, pine nuts, walnuts, ginger and cinnamon" were added in the "Buyin Pilji 婦人 必 知". In 『Korean Rice Cakes, Hangwa, Eumcheongryu』, "In mountainous regions such as Gangwon-do and Chungcheong-do, potato songpyeon, acorn songpyeon and songgisongpyeon have been prepared and eaten. In the coastal areas of Hamgyeong-do, Pyeongan-do and Gyeonggi-do, shellfish songpyeon as produced and eaten, and in the southern regions of Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do, songpyeon with moss leaves was produced and eaten.

Ogok-bap

Ogok-bap

Ogok-bap means five rice dish, which consists of rice mixed with glutinous rice, cornstarch, red bean, perilla, and soybean. By consuming grains with the energy of blue, red, yellow, white, and black, we pray for good health as well as a good year for our body with the energy of the five elements, and to chase away bad luck and happiness and well-being.

Beverages

Non-alcoholic beverages

Main article: Korean tea
See also: List of Korean dishes § Types of non-alcoholic beverages
Daechu cha (jujube tea)

All Korean traditional nonalcoholic beverages are referred to as eumcheong or eumcheongnyu (음청류 飮淸類) which literally means "clear beverages".[76] According to historical documents regarding Korean cuisine, 193 items of eumcheongnyu are recorded.[77] Eumcheongnyu can be divided into the following categories: tea, hwachae (fruit punch), sikhye (sweet rice drink), sujeonggwa (persimmon punch), tang (탕, boiled water), jang (장, fermented grain juice with a sour taste), suksu (숙수, beverage made of herbs), galsu (갈수, drink made of fruit extract, and Oriental medicine), honeyed water, juice and milk by their ingredient materials and preparation methods. Among the varieties, tea, hwachae, sikhye, and sujeonggwa are still widely favored and consumed; however, the others almost disappeared by the end of the 20th century.[78][79]

In Korean cuisine,

saenggang-cha).[80]

Alcoholic beverages

Main article:
Korean alcoholic beverages
See also:
List of Korean beverages
A bowl of makgeolli, a type of takju

While

Microbrewery beers and bars are growing in popularity after 2002.[82]

ABV
, and is a favorite beverage of hard-up college students, hard-drinking businessmen, and blue-collar workers.

Takju is a thick unrefined liquor made with grains, with the best known being makgeolli, a white, milky rice wine traditionally drunk by farmers.[83]

In addition to the rice wine, various fruit wines and herbal wines exist in Korean cuisine. Acacia, maesil plum, Chinese quince, cherry, pine cone, and pomegranate are most popular. Majuang wine (a blended wine of Korean grapes with French or American wines) and ginseng-based wines are also available.

Sweets

See also: List of Korean desserts
Tteok
hahngwa

Traditional rice cakes,

chapssaltteok is a tteok filled with sweet bean paste
.

On the other hand,

jocheong, and pine nuts, while yakgwa, literally "medicinal confectionery", is a flower-shaped biscuit made of honey, sesame oil
and wheat flour.

glutinous kaoliang
, corn, sweet potatoes or mixed grains. The steamed ingredients are lightly fermented and boiled in a large pot called sot (솥) for a long time.

Yugwa and Yakgwa. They are traditional desserts enjoyed during Chuseok, marriage or the sixtieth birthday
.

Regional and variant cuisines

Main article: Korean regional cuisine
A traditional meal in Kaesong, North Korea.

Korean regional cuisines (향토음식; hyangto eumsik)[88] are characterized by local specialties and distinctive styles within Korean cuisine. The divisions reflected historical boundaries of the provinces where these food and culinary traditions were preserved until modern times.

Although Korea has been divided into two nation-states since 1948 (North Korea and South Korea), it was once divided into

Gangwon Province. Gyeongsang Province and Jeolla Province Province made up the southern region.[89]

Until the late 19th century, transportation networks were not well developed, and each provincial region preserved its own characteristic tastes and cooking methods. Geographic differences are also reflected by the local specialty foodstuffs depending on the climate and types of agriculture, as well as the natural foods available. With the modern development of transportation and the introduction of foreign foods, Korean regional cuisines have tended to overlap and integrate. However, many unique traditional dishes in Korean regional cuisine have been handed down through the generations.[90][91]

Buddhist cuisine

Insadong
, Seoul.
Further information: Korean temple cuisine and Buddhist cuisine

Korean temple cuisine originated in Buddhist temples of Korea. Since

yumilgwa (a fried and puffed rice snack) were served for Buddhist altars and have been developed into types of hangwa, Korean traditional confectionery. During the Goryeo period, sangchu ssam (wraps made with lettuce), yaksik, and yakgwa were developed, and since spread to China and other countries. Since the Joseon dynasty, Buddhist cuisine has been established in Korea according to regions and temples.[92][93]

On the other hand, royal court cuisine is closely related to Korean temple cuisine. In the past, when the royal court maids, sanggung, who were assigned to Suragan (수라간; 水剌間; the name of the royal kitchen), where they prepared the king's meals, became old, they had to leave the royal palace. Therefore, many of them entered Buddhist temples to become nuns. As a result, culinary techniques and recipes of the royal cuisine were integrated into Buddhist cuisine.[94]

Vegetarian cuisine

Closeup of the ingredients in goldongban or bibimbap

vegan dish. Menus change with seasons. Wine with the alcohol removed and fine teas are also served. The Korean tea ceremony is suitable for all vegetarians and vegans, and began with Buddhist influences. All food is eaten with a combination of stainless steel oval chopsticks and a long-handled shallow spoon called together sujeo
.

Ceremonial food

Main article: Korean ceremonial food
See also:
Korean Traditional Festivals

Food is an important part of traditions of Korean family ceremonies, which are mainly based on the Confucian culture. Gwan Hon Sang Je (관혼상제; 冠婚喪祭), the four family ceremonies (coming-of-age ceremony, wedding, funeral, and ancestral rite) have been considered especially important and elaborately developed, continuing to influence Korean life to these days. Ceremonial food in Korea has developed with variation across different regions and cultures.[95]

For example, ancestral rites called jesa are mainly held on the anniversary of an ancestor's death. Ritual food includes rice, rice cakes, meat and fish, alcohol, and fruit.[96]

Street food

Main article: Street food in South Korea
Gimbap, rice (bap) and various filler ingredients, rolled in sheets of dried seaweed (gim)
Eomuk
 (어묵; 오뎅)

In South Korea, inexpensive food may be purchased from pojangmacha, street carts during the day, where customers may eat standing beside the cart or have their food wrapped up to take home. At night, pojangmacha (포장마차) become small tents that sell food, drinks, and alcoholic beverages.[97]

Seasonal street foods include

bungeoppang, which are enjoyed in autumn and winter. Gyeran-ppang and hoppang
are also enjoyed in winter.

Other common street foods include

eomuk. Dak-kkochi (닭꼬치), or skewered chicken grilled in various sauces, is also popular. Beondegi (번데기) and dalgona/ppopgi (뽑기) are two examples of original street foods many people have enjoyed since childhood.

Dak-kkochi
, Bbopki/Dalgona, Korean chicken skewers consisting of grilled small pieces of chicken.

Etiquette

Dining

A single-person bapsang (meal table). Each person was given a table in a traditional dining setting.
Korean chopsticks and spoon made of stainless steel.

Dining etiquette in Korea can be traced back to the

table etiquette
.

Other than the etiquette mentioned above, blowing one's nose when having a meal is considered an inappropriate act as well.

The eldest male at the table was always served first, and was commonly served in the men's quarters by the women of the house. Women usually dined in a separate portion of the house after the men were served. The eldest men or women always ate before the younger family members. The meal was usually quiet, as conversation was discouraged during meals. In modern times, these rules have become lax, as families usually dine together now and use the time to converse. Of the remaining elements of this decorum, one is that the younger members of the table should not pick up their chopsticks or start eating before the elders of the table or guests and should not finish eating before the elders or guests finish eating.[100][101]

In Korea, unlike in other East Asian cuisines such as Chinese and Japanese, the rice or soup bowl is not lifted from the table when eating from it. This is due to the fact that each diner is given a metal spoon along with the chopsticks known collectively as sujeo. The use of the spoon for eating rice and soups is expected. There are rules which reflect the decorum of sharing communal side dishes; rules include not picking through the dishes for certain items while leaving others, and the spoon used should be clean, because usually diners put their spoons in the same serving bowl on the table. Diners should also cover their mouths when using a toothpick after the meal.[100][101]

The table setup is important as well, and individual place settings, moving from the diner's left should be as follows: rice bowl, spoon, then chopsticks. Hot foods are set to the right side of the table, with the cold foods to the left. Soup must remain on the right side of the diner along with stews. Vegetables remain on the left along with the rice, and kimchi is set to the back while sauces remain in the front.[100]

Drinking

The manner of drinking alcoholic drinks while dining is significant in Korean dining etiquette. Each diner is expected to face away from the eldest male and cover his mouth when drinking alcohol. According to Hyang Eum Ju Rye (향음주례; 鄕飮酒禮), the drinking etiquette established in

Choseon dynasty, it is impolite for a king and his vassal, a father and his son, or a teacher and his student to drink face to face. Also, a guest should not refuse the first drink offered by host, and in the most formal situations, the diner should politely twice refuse a drink offered by the eldest male or a host. When the host offers for the third time, then finally the guest can receive it. If the guest refuses three times, drink is not to be offered any more.[102]

Royal court cuisine

Main article: Korean royal court cuisine
See also: List of Korean dishes § Royal court dishes
Anapji Lake in Gyeongju, the capital of Silla Kingdom
.

Collectively known as gungjung eumsik during the pre-modern era, the foods of the royal palace were reflective of the opulent nature of the past rulers of the Korean peninsula. This nature is evidenced in examples as far back as the

Anapji Lake, located in Gyeongju), was created with multiple pavilions and halls for the sole purpose of opulent banquets, and a spring fed channel, Poseokjeong, was created for the singular purpose of setting wine cups afloat while they wrote poems.[103]

Reflecting the regionalism of the kingdoms and bordering countries of the peninsula, the cuisine borrowed portions from each of these areas to exist as a showcase. The royalty would have the finest regional specialties and delicacies sent to them at the palace. Although there are records of banquets predating the Joseon period, the majority of these records mostly reflect the vast variety of foods, but do not mention the specific foods presented.[104] The meals cooked for the royal family did not reflect the seasons, as the commoner's meals would have. Instead, their meals varied significantly day-to-day. Each of the eight provinces was represented each month in the royal palace by ingredients presented by their governors, which gave the cooks a wide assortment of ingredients to use for royal meals.[105]

Dae Jang Geum
theme park, South Korea.

Food was considered significant in the Joseon period. Official positions were created within the

Yukjo, 육조) that were charged with all matters related to procurement and consumption of food and drink for the royal court. The Board of Personnel (Ijo, 이조) contained positions specific for attaining rice for the royal family. The Board of Rights (Yejo) were responsible for foods prepared for ancestor rites, attaining wines and other beverages, and medicinal foods. There were also hundreds of slaves and women who worked in the palace that had tasks such as making tofu, liquor, tea, and tteok (rice cakes). The women were the cooks to the royal palace and were of commoner or low-born families. These women would be split into specific skill sets or "bureau" such as the bureau of special foods (Saenggwa-bang, 생과방) or the bureau of cooking foods (Soju-bang, 소주방). These female cooks may have been assisted by male cooks from outside the palace during larger banquets when necessary.[106]

Five meals were generally served in the royal palace each day during the Joseon period, and records suggest this pattern had existed from antiquity. Three of these meals would be full meals, while the afternoon and after dinner meals would be lighter. The first meal, mieumsang (미음상), was served at sunrise and was served only on days when the king and queen were not taking herbal medicines. The meal consisted of

nabak kimchi, oysters, soy sauce, and other items. The porridge was thought to give vitality to the king and queen throughout the day.[107]

The sura (수라) were the main meals of the day. Breakfast was served at ten in the morning, and the evening meals were served between six and seven at night. The set of three tables (surasang, 수라상), were usually set with two types of rice, two types of soup, two types of stew (

sura sanggung (수라상궁). These women would remove bowl covers and offer the foods to the king and queen after ensuring the dishes were not poisoned.[108]

Banquets (궁중 연회 음식) were held on special occasions in the Korean Royal Palace. These included birthdays of the royal family members, marriages, and national festivals, including Daeborum, Dano, Chuseok, and Dongji.[109] Banquet food was served on individual tables which varied according to the rank of the person. Usually banquet food consisted of ten different types of dishes. Main dishes were prepared based on the seasonal foods. Main dishes of the banquet included sinseollo, jeon, hwayang jeok, honghapcho, nengmyun and mulgimchi.[109] A typical banquet ingredient was chogyetang (chicken broth with vinegar), which was prepared with five different chickens, five abalones, ten sea cucumbers, twenty eggs, half a bellflower root, mushrooms, two cups of black pepper, two peeled pine nuts, starch, soy sauce and vinegar. Yaksik was a favorite banquet dessert.[110]

Health effects

See also: Yaksik

Traditional Korean diet or Hansik is often associated with spiritual and physical health. While the diet of modern Korean people has become increasingly westernized and consists of numerous non-traditional foods, many believe in the healing power of Hansik. Vegetables and fermented foods are part of a healthy diet around the world, and Hansik includes many vegetable dishes and fermented foods. Three dishes, soup, Kimchi and multigrain rice make up the basic meal pattern of Hansik called three Cheopbansang. Fermented soybean paste Doenjang used in soups and fermented red chili paste Gochujang used in kimchi add health benefits to these foods.

Certain foods are typically consumed to combat the heat of the summer or the cold months, regain strength during and after an illness, or for general health. Cool noodle Naengmyeon originally from the northern part of the Korean peninsula is now enjoyed in South Korea as well as many parts of the world especially during the hot summer months. Likewise, ginseng chicken soup Samgyetang is often eaten during summer to reduce heat exhaustion and regain stamina.

Following a traditional Korean diet may lower the risk of some health issues including obesity and metabolic syndrome with a decrease in body mass index (BMI), body fat percent, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.[111] Fermented foods like kimchi and doenjang contain probiotics which may boost immunity and reduce the incidence or severity of allergic conditions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis. It may also lower the risk of cardiovascular and chronic metabolic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes.[112]

Probiotics typically found in kimchi include species of genera Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Weissella, and they have been linked to anti-inflammatory effects and health benefits such as improved gut health.[113] Napa cabbage is prepared with much salt and approximately 20% of sodium intake comes from kimchi. An increased risk of gastric cancer among subjects with frequent or high consumption of kimchi was found in some case-control studies.[114] As with other salted foods, moderate consumption may maximize health benefits of kimchi.

See also

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