Kouros
Kouros (
The female sculptural counterpart of the kouros is the kore.
Etymology
The Ancient Greek word kouros (κοῦρος) refers to "youth, boy, especially of noble rank."[5] When a pubescent was received into the body of grown men, as a grown Kouros, he could enter the initiation fest of the brotherhood (phratry, φρατρία). Apellaios was the month of these rites, and Apollo (Apellon) was the "megistos kouros" (the greatest Kouros).[6]
The word is also attested in Linear B, a syllabary system of writing used to record the Mycenaean Greek dialect of the Hellenic languages. The word ko-wo (*κόρϝος, *kórwos) is attested in tablets from Pylos and Knossos, and could mean "the sons of the women recorded in those tablets".[7]
The term kouros was first proposed for what were previously thought to be depictions of Apollo by V.I. Leonardos in 1895 in relation to the youth from Keratea, and adopted by Henri Lechat as a generic term for the standing male figure in 1904.
Purpose
The kouros type appears to have served several functions. It was previously thought that it was used only to represent the god Apollo, as attested by its depiction on a vase painting in the presence of supplicants.[8] This association with Apollo was supported by the description of the statue of the Pythian Apollo at Samos by Diodoros[9][10]: 1 as "Egyptian in style, with his arms hanging by his sides and his legs parted". However, not all kouroi are images of a deity; many have been discovered in cemeteries where they likely served as commemorative tombstones of the deceased. This type was also used as a memorial for victors in the games (like trophies), kouroi were used as offerings to the gods, (Pausanias describes the statue of Arrhichion, an Olympic pankratiast, as in the kouros scheme),[11] and some kouroi have been found in sanctuaries other than that of Apollo. Indeed, some kouroi placed in sanctuaries were not inscribed with the name of the god but with a mortal, for example the 'Delphi Twins' Kleobis and Biton were honoured for their piety with matching kouroi.[12]
A direct influence between Egyptian sculptures (in particular the figure of Horus) and the kouros type has long been conjectured, not least because of trade and cultural relations that are known to have existed since the mid-seventh century BCE. A 1978 study by Eleanor Guralnick applied stereophotogrammetric measurement and cluster analysis to a number of Greek and Egyptian statues and found the correlation between the Second Canon of the 26th Dynasty and Greek kouroi to be widely distributed but not universal.[13]
Origin and evolution
The problem of the evolution of the kouros type is inevitably linked to that of the overall development of monumental Archaic Greek sculpture. There are fundamentally two schools of thought on how those Daedalic forms, some of which we know of only from the literature (kolossos, bretas, andrias and xoanon), became the free-standing sculpture in around the 6th century; namely, that it was a response to the internal development of Greek types and religious needs
The work of Guralnick along with the previous studies by Erik Iversen and Kim Levin
According to Hurwit & Campbell: "Kouroi apparently first appeared on the island of Naxos, since most early examples are in Naxian marble".[21]
Attributes and meaning
Kouroi are beardless, take a formulaic advancing posture, and are most often nude.[c]
Taking from the style of Egyptian figures, Greek kouroi often have their left leg extended forward as though walking; however, the figurine looks as though it could be either standing still or taking a long stride.
As well as being found in the sanctuaries of Apollo at Delphi, Delos and Mt. Ptoion, kouroi have been found dedicated at the sanctuaries of Hera at Samos, and of Athena and Poseidon at Sounion,[24] so the contention that they depict Apollo is at the very least problematic. However, the majority are from Apollonian sites and dedicated to that god, which has led
Development
The earliest extant examples may be the two life-sized marble figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos[27][10]: 27 dating from the second or third quarter of the seventh century. The canonical form of the kouros persists until the beginning of the classical period, by which time artists had achieved a high degree of anatomical verisimilitude, if not naturalism,[28] as can be observed on such transitional works as the Kritios Boy, c. 480 BC. The absolute chronology of the kouros form is uncertain; none of the sculptures have secure dates.
There is a strong homogeneity across the various regional schools: where anatomical innovations were adopted they seem to have spread quickly amongst the different workshops so that "regional distinctions become merged in a common progression".[10]: 5 Consequently, the development of the kouros type as we now understand it is based on the relative chronology delineated by Richter, who distinguishes six groups by their common anatomical features, with particular reference to the major muscle groups as illustrated in the écorchés.
Sounion group
C. 615–590 BCE: the dates of this period are tentative, roughly late seventh-early sixth century, which Richter[10]: 38 infers from the duration of development necessary for the previous generations from the more securely dated Tenea-Volomandra group. Additionally she notes a similarity of sculpture from this time to early Athenian pottery, particularly the Nessos amphora[29] and the human figures on the Horse amphorae.[30] Richter also detects[10]: 38 a resemblance between the New York-Sounion kouroi and an early Corinthian pyxis[31] of the last quarter of the seventh century. Notable works of the time include the
The conception of form in this period is abstract and geometrical, emphasis is on architectural shape and the interrelation of parts which favoured expressive pattern over realism. Figures display the four faces of the block from which they are carved, their form is cubic with details incised, and their anatomy is only partially understood. Harmony and expressive pattern are the goal, and as such the proportions are abnormal. The torso is four-sided and flat, the back is higher than chest with the vertebral column expressed as a straight line. The skull is undeveloped; flat at the back and often on top. The ear is carved in one plane, and highly stylized.
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Sounion kouros[35]
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Kouros Porte Sacrée Kerameikos Archaeological Museum, Athens (KAMA)
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Athens[37]
Orchomenos–Thera group
C. 590–570 BCE: this period witnesses a lull in Attica with perhaps only two identifiable works from the beginning of the era until the second quarter of century,[38] this might be due to the Solonic reforms and their restriction on the extravagance of private funerals. Activity is more vigorous in Boeotia, especially those from the Ptoan sanctuary and the Orchomenos kouros,[39] early work there is probably native.[10]: 59 Also Corinth, Actium produces one of the best examples of the period,[40] detailing still of in the form of grooves and ridges but there is the beginning of modeling in the full roundness of natural form. One of the more accomplished products of the time is the Thera kouros,[41] softer and less muscular in modeling it is more Ionian than Dorian though Thera was a Dorian colony. We may deduce the chronology of this period only if the dates for the Sounion and Volodmera groups are correct since there is no external evidence for the dates of this style; however, we can usefully compare the heads[42] on vase painting of middle Corinthian 600-575 BCE[10]: 62 which share the same stolid expression, flat skull, large eyes and horizontal mouth.
The characteristics of this style are as follows. The ear is still carved in one plane, but less stylised. Eyes are not so large as before and more rounded. Mouth is horizontal but no longer always in one plane. The slight protrusions of flanks are sometimes prolonged into a girdle-like ridge, the sculptor occasionally marks the anterior spine of the crest. Shoulder blades are now separate raised planes. The erector spinae sometimes indicated as raised planes. Arms are generally joined to body. The depression over great trochanter is generally omitted. Shin sometimes curves inwards. Left flank is occasionally placed slightly forward.
-
British Museum, London[43]
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Actium 3,Louvre[44]
-
Kouros[45] from Thera.
Tenea–Volomandra group
C. 575–550 BCE: named after an Attic kouros found at Volomandra[46] and a Corinthian specimen from Tenea (Munich 168) this period marks the flowering of the Middle Archaic, and these kouroi are contemporary with such works as the Berlin Standing Kore, the
The absolute chronology of this period is provided by the dedication of Rhombos on the Moschophoros, which may belong to the same time as a decree referring to the Panathenaia of 566. The Moschophoros is stylistically similar to early in this group giving us an approximate upper limit of 570.[10]: 77 Additionally the terracotta kneeling boy[47] found in a well in the Agora and dated by its black-figure pottery sherd stratum to circa 550 shares the flat almond eyes, absence of the trapezium and pointed arch of the lower thorax that characterizes the late Tenea-Volomandra, furnishing us with a tentative lower boundary for the style.
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Tenea kouros, Munich 168.
Melos group
"Astonishingly uniform"[10]: 90 the products of this period are found across the Greek world in large quantities. This group is named after the best preserved example of the era.[48] The date of this group is conjectured on the basis that one generation would be required for the development of the Melos group style prior to the more securely dated Anavysos-Ptoon style. However Richter argues there may be some relationship to other contemporary Greek art works, namely: the figures on Late Corinthian pottery c. 550 BCE. exhibit the same degree of naturalism,[10]: 93 and the archaic column sculptures from the Temple of Artemis Ephesos, thought to have been supplied by Croesus of Lydia, share some anatomical features.[d] Of the important works that come done to us there is the colossal kouros from Megara,[50] a transitional early piece from Boeotia (Thebes 3) and an early Parian example.[51]
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Kouros from Megara[52]
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Thebes 3.
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Asclepieion kouros,Louvre
The characteristics of this group can be observed on the Siphnian Treasury which is dated on external evidence before 525 BCE,[53] therefore allowing time for the maturation of the style we can date the beginning of this group to, roughly, a generation prior.[10]: 115 The earliest is perhaps the Munich kouros (Glyptothek 169) judging by the rendering of some of the muscles. Another significant Attic kouros in this style is the Anavyssos; its base reads:
Two others are the Akropolis torso,[55] and the Rayet head.[56] The island of Keos supplies us with one of the best examples of the time,[57] notable for its advanced rendering of the back where the greatest protrusion of the back is level with that of the chest. Keos was likely under the cultural influence of Athens at this time and this kouros is comparable to and chronologically close to the Anavyssos kouros and akropolis head. From the Ptoan sanctuary in
-
Anavysos Kouros.
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Athens, Kouros from Merenda.[59]
Ptoon 20 group
C. 520–485 BCE: the last stage in the development of the kouros type is the period in which the Greek sculptor attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used it to create a harmonious, proportionate whole. The features that now become expressed are as follows. The lachrymal caruncle is sometimes indicated. Lips curved upwards only in early examples, the upper lip protrudes markedly over the lower and lips are well shaped. Hair is generally short or rolled up behind, it radiates from a point near vertex and carved in wavy strands. The structure of neck is now correct. There is an indication of swelling of trapezium on the outline of shoulder, becoming more pronounced over time. Clavicles assume an s-shape and lose themselves in shoulders. The lower boundary of thorax assumes a semicircular arch. The rectus abdominis, now reduced in number to two, with the top one incorporated into lower boundary of thorax. There is a small raised plane caused by projection of xiphoid appendage sometimes observable at lower end of sternum. Navel has fold of skin above in most examples. The lower boundary of abdomen assumes shape of semicircle, and the upper edge of torso with two concave curves becomes regular in form. Forearm and hand correctly pronated. Arms sometimes held free from body. Flanks; occasionally at first later regularly, flank and buttock of supporting leg rise in conformity with action.
This period is framed by the stasis of the Peisistratid era and the beginning of Athenian democracy and the Persian war. The upper limit of this group may be fixed by the sculpture of the temple of Apollo, Delphi.[10]: 129–130 Architecturally earlier than the Hekatompedon of Athens the Delphi temple has a probable date of c. 520 BCE, thus the kouroi of its pediment which betray the swelling trapezium and semicircular lower boundary of the abdomen can be associated with later examples of the group. Yet these same youths have a grooved, narrow lower boundary to the thorax and their flanks are level, suggesting that they are early specimens of the style. Richter (1960)[10] names this group after the kouros Ptoon 20,[60] which is likely a
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B.M.London, [64] from Anaphe (?).
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Late Athenian Aristodikos Kouros
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Kouros of Reggio, Calabria.
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Piraeus Apollo
See also
- Ephebos
- Getty kouros
- Greek art
- List of museums in Greece
- National Archaeological Museum of Athens
- Rampin Rider
- Strangford Apollo
Notes
- ^ In the accompanying epigraphy the dedicatory formula was "[X] dedicated me to [Y]", there seems to have been no generic term for these sculptures used in the ancient literature, see Morris (1994).[1]
- ^ Subsequent study by Carter & Steinberg (2010)[20] casts doubt on Guralnick's results. They maintain that while there two principal groups of kouroi there is not a statistically significant correlation between the Greek and Egyptian forms, and the differences can be accounted for by the variation in the development of regional styles.
- ^
This is begging the question, of course, whether kouroi so defined form a different category from other male figures, namely draped youths, cuirassed or armed warriors, or bearded figures.
See Ridgway (1993).[16]: 91–94
- ^ Herodotus I.92 claims Croesus supplied the columns; that the fragments that remain in the present day are the same as those Hetrodotus saw is unclear, see Pryce (1928)[49]: 47 Richter (1960)[10]: 94
- ^ Though other origins have been suggested, see Deonna[61]
References
- ^ Morris, Ian (1994). Classical Greece: Ancient Histories and Modern Archaeologies. p. 90.
- ^
Neer, Richard (2012). Greek Art and Archaeology: A New History c.2500-c.150 BC. New York, USA: Thames & Hudson Inc. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-500-28877-1.
- ^ Henri Lechat, 1904, La sculpture attique avant Phidias.
- ^ J. Ducat, 1971, Les kouroi du Ptoion
- ^ "κούρος (kouros)". Perseus. Tufts University.
- ^
ISBN 978-1108009492.
- ^
García, Carlos Varias (2017). "De synonymia Mycenaea: términos griegos equivalentes de distintos reinos micénicos". In de la Villa, Jesús; Rey, Emma Falque; González Castro, José Francisco; Jiménez, María José Muñoz (eds.). Conuentus Classicorum: Temas y formas del Mundo Clásico. Vol. 1. pp. 383–384. ISBN 978-84-697-8214-9.
- ^ BM E 336
- ^
Diodoros, I.98.9;
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Richter, Gisela M.A. (1960). Kouroi, Archaic Greek Youths: A study of the development of the Kouros type in Greek sculpture.
- ^
Diodoros, VIII.40.I
- ^ Archaeological Museum, 467, 1524
- ^ E. Guralnick (1978) Proportions of kouroi, AJA, p.461
- ^
i.e. E. Athes (1963) ProcPhilSoc, 107, pp 60-81
R.M. Cook (1987) Origins of Greek Sculpture, JHS 87, pp 24-32
P. Kranz (1972) AthMitt 81, pp 1-55 - ^ Herodotus, II.1.54
- ^ a b c d e
Ridgway, B.S.(1993) [1977]. The Archaic Style in Greek Sculpture (2nd ed.).
- ^ [16]: 36 Though note that only a little Archaic sculpture has been found in Naukratis and it is not monumental.
- LouvreE 5345
- ^
Iversen (1957) MittKairo, 15, 134-147
Iversen (1955) Canon and Proportion in Egyptian Art
Levin (1964) AJA 68, 13-28 - ^
Carter, Jane B.; Steinberg, Laura J. (2010). "Kouroi and statistics". American Journal of Archaeology. 114 (1): 103–128. S2CID 191379620.
- ^ Hurwit, Jeffrey M.; Plantzos, Dimitris; Campbell, Gordon (2003). Kouros. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. ]
- ^
Neer, Richard (2012). Greek Art and Archaeology. New York, New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 115. ISBN 978-0500288771.
- ^
Deonna, Broadman for example; see Ridgway (1993).[16]: 72 [note 28]
- ^ Whitley, J. (2007) The archaeology of ancient Greece, p 218
- ^ Ducat (1971) pp 444-445
- ^ Stewart (1990) pp 109–110
- ^ Delos Museum A4085 and A334
- ^ For a corrective to the teleological assumption that the archaic artist's aim was for naturalism see Hurwit, 1985, The Art and Culture of Early Greece, 1100-480 BC, pp 255-257
- NAMA1002
- ^ Lullies CV Munich, fasc. 1, pls. 1-11
- ^ Payne, Necrocorinthia, p.293, pl. 47, 7-9
- ^ Met 32.11.1
- NAMA56
- ^ Delphi Mus. 467 and 1524
- NAMA2720
- ^ MET 32.11.1
- NAMA2720
- ^
NAMA3858 and 4181
- ^
NAMA9
- ^
LouvreMNB 767
- ^
NAMA8
- ^ Payne, Necrocorinthia, pl.48, nos. 1-4
- ^ BM 474
- LouvreMNB 767
- NAMA8
- ^
NAMA1906
- ^ Vanderpool (1937) Hesperia, VI, p 434
- ^
NAMA1558
- ^ Pryce, F.N. (1928). Catalogue of Sculpture in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities of the British Museum. Vol. 1. p. 47;
- NAMA13
- LouvreMND 888
- NAMA13, 4545
- ^ Herodotus III.57-8, based, of course, on the orthodox chronology and not the Vickers-Francis revised chronology.
- ^
NAMA3851
- ^ Akropolis 665, 596
- ^ Carlsberg Glyptothek 418
- ^
NAMA3686
- ^ Munich 169
- NAMA4890
- ^
NAMA20
- ^ Deonna, W. (1909). Les 'Apollons Archaïques', étude sur le type masculin de la statuaire greque au VIme siècle avant notre ère (in French). pp. 158 ff.
- ^
NAMA3938
- ^
NAMA6445
- ^ BM 475
Sources
- Boardman, J. (1991). Greek Sculpture: The Archaic period, a handbook.[full citation needed]
- Buschor, E. (1950). Frühgriechische Jünglinge.
- Caskey, L.D. (1924). "The Proportions of the Apollo of Tenea". S2CID 191402227.
- Deonna, W. (1909). Les 'Apollons Archaïques', étude sur le type masculin de la statuaire greque au VIme siècle avant notre ère (in French).
- Guralnick, Eleanor (July 1985). "Profiles of Kouroi". American Journal of Archaeology. 89 (3): 399–409. S2CID 193093189.
- Guralnick, E. (1978). "The Proportions of Kouroi". American Journal of Archaeology.
- Richter, Gisela M.A. (1963). A Handbook of Greek Art (Third ed.).
- Richter, Gisela M.A. (1960). Kouroi, Archaic Greek Youths: A study of the development of the Kouros type in Greek sculpture.
- Ridgway, B.S.(1977). The Archaic Style in Greek Sculpture (1st ed.).
- Ridgway, B.S.(1993). The Archaic Style in Greek Sculpture (2nd ed.).
- Stewart, A. (1990). Greek Sculpture.
- Franssen, J. (2011). Votiv und Repräsentation. Statuarische Weihungen archaischer Zeit aus Samos und Attika. Archäologie und Geschichte (in German). Vol. Bd. 13. Heidelberg, DE: Verlag Archäologie und Geschichte. ISBN 978-3-935289-36-8.
External links
- "kouros". ancient-greece.org. Art.
- Colour reconstruction Kuros from Tenea. stiftung-archaeologie.de (images).
- Media related to Kouroi at Wikimedia Commons