Sierra Leone Creole people
Gambian Creoles, Gold Coast Euro-Africans ,
Krio Fernandinos, Saro people, Tabom people . |
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The Sierra Leone Creole people (
The Creoles of Sierra Leone have varying degrees of European
The Americo-Liberians and Sierra Leone Creoles are the only recognised ethnic group of African-American, Liberated African, and Afro-Caribbean descent in West Africa.[16][17][1] Thoroughly westernized in their manners, the Creoles as a class developed close relationships with the British colonial administration; they became educated in British institutions and advanced to prominent leadership positions in colonial Sierra Leone and British West Africa.[18] Partly due to this history, many Sierra Leone Creoles have first names and/or surnames that are anglicized or British in origin.
The Creoles are overwhelmingly Christian[a] and the vast majority of them reside in Freetown and its surrounding Western Area region of Sierra Leone.[21] From their mix of peoples, the Creoles developed what is now the native Krio language, a creole deriving from English, indigenous West African languages, and other European languages. It is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. As the Krio language is spoken by 96 percent of the country's population,[1][22] it unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[23][24] Krio is also the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans living abroad.[25]
The Sierra Leone Creoles settled across West Africa in the nineteenth century in communities such as
are sub-ethnic groups or partly descended from the Sierra Leone Creole people or their ancestors.Ethnonymy and overview
The English word creole[b] derives from the French créole, which in turn came from Portuguese crioulo, a diminutive of cria, meaning a person raised in one's house. Cria derives from criar, meaning "to raise or bring up", itself derived from the Latin creare, meaning "to make, bring forth, produce, beget";[37] — itself the source of the English word "create". The word creole has several cognates in other languages, such as créole, creolo, criol, criollo, crioulo, kreol, kreyol, krio, kriol, kriolu, and kriyoyo.
In
In the Caribbean, the term broadly refers to all the people, whatever their class or ancestry — African, East Asian, European, Indian — who are part of the culture of the Caribbean.[42] In Trinidad, the term Creole is used to designate all Trinidadians except those of Asian origin. In French Guiana the term refers to anyone, regardless of skin colour, who has adopted a European way of life, and in neighbouring Suriname, the term refers only to the descendants of enslaved Africans.[14][42]
In Africa, the term Creole refers to any ethnic group formed during the
The Crioulos of African or mixed Portuguese and African descent eventually gave rise to several ethnic groups in
Perhaps due to the range of divergent descriptions and lack of a coherent definition, Norwegian anthropologist T. H. Eriksen concludes:
“A Creole society, in my understanding, is based wholly or partly on the mass displacement of people who were, often involuntarily, uprooted from their original home, shedding the main features of their social and political organisations on the way, brought into sustained contact with people from other linguistic and cultural areas and obliged to develop, in creative and improvisational ways, new social and cultural forms in the new land, drawing simultaneously on traditions from their respective places of origin and on impulses resulting from the encounter.”[14]
Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Creolisation as a Recipe for Conviviality (2020)
Today, Creole communities have more in common with each other than they have with any
Creole communities in Africa have grown in several ways. Elements of their culture, including language and music, have come to dominate popular culture on the islands. In Creole-established cities on the African mainland, some non-Creoles have assimilated into Creole societies, which are perceived to enjoy privileged status. Those seeking acceptance into a Creole community usually converted to Christianity, the religion shared by nearly all Creoles.[43]
History
In 1787, the British helped 400 freed slaves, primarily African Americans freed during the American Revolutionary War who had been evacuated to London, and Afro-Caribbeans and Africans from London, to relocate to Sierra Leone to settle in what they called the "Province of Freedom." Some of these early settlers had been freed earlier and worked as servants in London. Most of the first group died due to disease and warfare with indigenous peoples. About 64 survived to establish the second Granville Town following the failed first attempt at colonization between 1787 and 1789.
In 1792, 1200
In 1800, the British government also transported 550
After Britain and the United States abolished the international African slave trade beginning in 1808, they patrolled off the continent to intercept illegal shipping. The British resettled Liberated Africans from slave ships at Freetown. The Liberated Africans included people from the Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Fante, and other ethnicities of West Africa.[15]
Some members of indigenous Sierra Leone ethnicities, were also among the Liberated Africans resettled at Freetown; they also assimilated into Creole culture. Others came to the settlement voluntarily, seeing opportunities in Creole culture in the society.[16]
Black Poor and Province of Freedom 1787–1789
The first settlers to find a colony in Sierra Leone were the so-called "Black Poor": African Americans and Afro-Caribbean. 411 settlers arrived in May 1787. Some were
On the voyage between Plymouth and Sierra Leone, 96 passengers died.[51] However, enough survived to establish and build a colony. Seventy white women accompanied the men to Sierra Leone. Anna Falconbridge portrayed these white women as prostitutes from Deptford Prison, but they were most likely wives and girlfriends of the black settlers.[52] Their colony was known as the "Province of Freedom" and their settlement was called "Granville Town"' after the English abolitionist Granville Sharp. The British negotiated for the land for the settlement with the local Temne chief, King Tom.
However, before the ships sailed away from Sierra Leone, 50 white women had died, and about 250 remained of the original 440 who left Plymouth. Another 86 settlers died in the first four months. Although initially there was no hostility between the two groups, after King Tom's death the next Temne chief retaliated for a slave trader's burning of his village.
Nova Scotians and the Freetown Colony 1792–1799
The proponents and directors of the Sierra Leone colony believed that a new colony did not need black settlers from London. The directors decided to offer resettlement to African Americans from Nova Scotia, despite the failure of the last colony. These settlers were Black Loyalists, American slaves who had escaped to British lines and fought with them during the American Revolution, to earn freedom. The British government had transported more than 3,000 freedmen to Nova Scotia for resettlement, together with white Loyalists. Some of the African Americans were from South Carolina and the Sea Islands, of the Gullah culture; others were from states along the eastern seaboard up to New England.
Some 1200 of these blacks emigrated to Sierra Leone from Halifax Harbour on 15 January 1792, arriving between 28 February and 9 March 1792. On 11 March 1792, the Nova Scotian Settlers disembarked from the 14 passenger ships that had carried them from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone and marched toward the large cotton tree near George Street. As the Settlers gathered under the tree, their preachers held a thanksgiving service and the white minister, Rev. Patrick Gilbert preached a sermon. After the religious services, the settlement was officially established and was designated Freetown. The Settler men cleared the forest and shrub and built a new settlement on the overgrown site that had formerly contained the Granville Town settlement.
They had a profound influence on Creole culture; many of the Western attributes of Creole society were conveyed by the "Settlers", who continued what was familiar to them from their past lives. In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotians or "Settlers" (the 1787 Settlers were called the Old Settlers). They founded the capital of Sierra Leone in 1792. The descendants of African Americans remained an identifiable ethnic group until the 1870s, when the Creole identity was beginning to form.
Maroons and other transatlantic immigrants 1800–1819
The next arrivals were the
The dispute with the Temne was over "rent" which the Temne felt they were owed by the colony. In a twist that became the hallmark of politics in the subregion, the Temne had indeed signed a treaty granting full sovereignty to the Colony but then turned around to say that this was not their understanding. This misunderstanding became violent, when in 1801, the Temne attacked Freetown. The assault failed, resulting instead in the expulsion of the Temne from the area.
The next migrations of transatlantic immigrants between 1800 and 1819 were smaller in comparison to the early Nova Scotian Settlers and Jamaican Maroon immigrants.
Thirty-eight African Americans (nine families) immigrated to Freetown under the auspices of African-American ship owner
Following the Jamaican Maroons and Barbadian rebels, Afro-Caribbean immigrants settled in
Prominent Creole families of more recent
Recaptives or Liberated Africans 1807–1830s
The last major group of immigrants to the colony was the Liberated Africans or "Recaptives".[56] Held on slave ships for sale in the western hemisphere, they were liberated by the Royal Navy, which, with the West Africa Squadron, enforced the abolition of the international slave trade after 1808.
The Liberated Africans were multi-ethnic and were largely
The Liberated Africans, also called Recaptives, contributed greatly to the Creole culture. While the Settlers, Maroons, and transatlantic immigrants gave the Creoles their Christianity, some of their customs, and their Western influence, the Liberated Africans modified their customs to adopt those of the Nova Scotians and Europeans, yet kept some of their ethnic traditions.[16]: 5
Initially the British colonial administration intervened to ensure the Recaptives became firmly rooted in Freetown society; they served in the army with the West India Regiment, and they were assigned as apprentices in the houses of Settlers and Maroons. Sometimes if a child's parents died, the young Recaptive would be adopted by a Settler or Maroon family. The two groups mixed and mingled in society.[58]
As the Recaptives began to trade and spread Christianity throughout West Africa, they began to dominate Freetown society. The Recaptives intermarried with the Settlers and Maroons, and the two groups became a fusion of African and Western societies.[16]: 3–4, 223–255
Settlements
The ancestors of the Creoles founded the
The next group of settlers were Jamaican Maroons from Cudjoe's Town, who arrived in Freetown, via Nova Scotia, in 1800. Notable families such as the Jarretts, Smiths, Hortons, Coles, Porters, Jones, and the Morgans, settled in Maroon Town, Sierra Leone. Seventy percent of Maroons lived on five streets: Gloucester, George, Trelawney, Walpole, and Westmoreland street. The Jamaican Maroon settlement was west of Settler Town between Walpole street and King Tom.
The Liberated African ancestors – principally of Akan, Bakongo, Ewe, Igbo and Yoruba origin – settled across the Western Area peninsula of Sierra Leone. By the 1850s, they had already established Aberdeen, Bathurst, Charlotte, Dublin, Gloucester, Goderich, Grafton, Hastings, Kent, Kissy, Leicester, Murray Town, Regent, Ricketts, Sussex, Waterloo, Wellington, Wilberforce and York.
Between the late 18th and early 20th centuries, immigrants from the
The Creole people acted as colonial administrators, traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century, and as a result, there are also Creole communities in
Religion
The Creoles are Christians, whether nominal or in practice, at more than 98 percent. A large proportion of the settlers from Nova Scotia and the Caribbean were Christians. Many liberated Africans also converted to Christianity.[63]
The Creoles were instrumental in the establishment of
Creole denominations are mainly
, Sierra Leone, also have Creole attendees, although these are smaller in number compared to Creole Anglicans and Methodists.Creole church attendees congregate at traditional "Creole" churches in Freetown such as
Prominent Creole Anglicans include
Although Creoles are primarily
Language
The
Krio is widely spoken throughout Freetown and the surrounding towns, such that Krio speakers are no longer presumed to be of the Creole ethnic group.[25]
The Creole people acted as traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century.
In 1993, there were 473,000 speakers in Sierra Leone (493,470 in all countries); Krio was the third-most spoken language behind
Native Krio speakers of the Creole ethnicity lived principally in Freetown communities, on the Peninsula, on the Banana Islands and York Island, and in Bonthe.
Culture
Creole culture is a fusion of
From their earliest presence in Sierra Leone and
Notable examples includeMarriage and family
Creoles observe dating and marriage customs that reflect their
Creole traditional wedding attire is a
Ashobis, (parties) at which every guest is expected to wear the same type of materials, are held on the day of the wedding or some days after, for newlyweds.[94]
Creoles live in nuclear families (father, mother, and their children), but the extended family is important to them as well.[95] More affluent family members are expected to help those who are less fortunate. They assist poorer relatives with school fees and job opportunities. In most Creole families, women and elder siblings care for the children who in turn, are expected to complete the household chores.[70]
Twins in Creole society
Twins are important for the Creole who tend to give special names to each one. The naming convention used by the Creoles comes from their Yoruba Liberated African ancestry.[96] The first of the twins to be born is traditionally named Taiyewo or Tayewo, which means 'the first to taste the world', or the 'slave to the second twin', this is often shortened to Taiwo, Taiye or Taye.[97] Kehinde is the name of the last born twin and it means, 'the child that came behind gets the rights of the elder'.[98]
Music
Sierra Leonean
The gumbe drum is an important cultural symbol played to induce a trance-like state which connects the Creoles with their ancestors.[100] Generally, the music is produced using the gumbe drum, the maracash and the saw. The maracash is a glass bottle and metallic object played together to produce a desirable rhythm. The jagged edge of the saw is rubbed against another sharp object to produce a rasping sound.[101]
In modern times, gumbe music has become a key feature in Sierra Leone's musical landscape. It is often mixed with other more contemporary musical genres to create an authentic local sound.[102]
Attire
Present-day Creoles, similar to other Sierra Leoneans, wear both African and Western-style dress. Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone had been accustomed to seeing European dress prior to the arrival of the Creoles, as a consequence of extensive trade with Europeans dating to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
However, the ethnic groups who inhabited Sierra Leone did not customarily wear Western-style dress, until they were popularized by the Creole.[103][3][104] Like their Americo-Liberian neighbors, Creole fashion between the Victorian and Edwardian era consisted of a top hat and frock coat for men and a petticoat for women,[105][94] although some Creole women sometimes wore the Jamaican Maroon Kabaslot and Kotoku,[106] the latter a Twi or Ga word for money bag.
Although Creoles continue to wear elaborate dress style for special occasions such as weddings and parades, they adapted their styles of dress to incorporate newer Western-style fashion and intricate African-style dresses between the early to late 20th century.
Today, teenage fashion—jeans, T-shirts, and sneakers—are very much in style among young Creole people. However, older Sierra Leone Creoles still dress conservatively in Western-style suits and dresses and some Creole women still wear the
Cuisine
Breakfast meal of some Creoles consist of
Creole meals often coincide with specific days of the week. On Saturdays,
Sunday dinner is a West African one-pot meal,
Rites of passage
Creoles use combined British Christian cultural practices and certain elements of African rituals in connection with rites of passage such as births and deaths. Creoles have christening and baptismal ceremonies but also have a naming ceremony commonly referred to as pull-na-doh or komojadé on the seventh day following the birth, which is held to celebrate a new-born.[93]
For
intended to celebrate the anniversaries of ancestors who have died. Awujoh feasts are held in remembrance of deceased family members generally the first anniversary of their passing but may also be held on the occasion of the five, ten, fifteen years anniversaries, etc.Among some Creole families, when someone dies, pictures in the house are turned toward the wall and all mirrors or reflecting surfaces covered. At the wake held before the burial, people clap and sing "shouts"(negro spirituals) loudly to make sure the corpse is not merely in a trance. The next day the body is washed, placed in shrouds (burial cloths), and laid on a bed for a final viewing. Then it is placed in a coffin and taken to the church for the service, and lastly to the cemetery for burial.
The period of mourning lasts one year. On the third, seventh, and fortieth day after death, awujoh feasts are held. The feast on the fortieth day marks the spirit's last day on earth. The family and guests eat a big meal. Portions of the meal and kola nuts are placed into a hole for the dead. The "pull mooning" day – the end of mourning – occurs at the end of one year (the first anniversary of a death). The mourners wear white, visit the cemetery and then return home for refreshments.[94][108][109]
Creole folktales
Creoles have inherited a wide range of proverbs and folktales, including Anansi stories, from their multi-ethnic ancestors including the Jamaican Maroons and the Akan and Ewe Liberated Africans. They entertain and provide instruction in Creole values and traditions. Among the best loved are Creole stories about Anansi the spider.[110] The following is a typical spider tale:
“Once the spider was fat. He loved eating, but detested work and had not planted or fished all season. One day the villagers were preparing a feast. From his forest web, he could smell the mouth-watering cooking. He knew that if he visited friends, they would feed him as was the custom. So he called his two sons and told both of them to tie a rope around his waist and set off in opposite directions for the two closest villages, each holding one end of the rope. They were to pull on the rope when the food was ready. But both villages began eating at the same time, and when the sons began pulling the rope, it grew tighter and tighter, squeezing the greedy spider. When the feasting was over and the sons came to look for him, they found a big head, a big body, and a very thin waist!”[110][111][112]
Anansi stories are part of an ancient mythology that is rooted in Liberated African folklore and concerns the interaction between divine and semi-divine beings, royalty, humans, animals, plants and seemingly inanimate objects.[113]
Creole culture and broader Sierra Leonean cultures
Oku people
The
In contrast to the Oku people, the Creoles are Christian and are a mixture of various ethnic groups including
More recently, some scholars consider the Oku to be a sub-ethnic group of the Creoles, based on their close association with British colonists and their adoption of Western education and other aspects of culture.[19]
Those classifying the Oku as part of the Sierra Leone Creole people note their adoption of similar English or European surnames (although this was a minority of Oku) and cultural aspects such as
Sherbro people
According to anthropologist Anaïs Ménard, the only Sierra Leonean ethnic group whose culture is similar (in terms of its embrace of Western culture) are westernized members of the Sherbro people.[118] Many Sherbro assimilate as Creoles, as they share the Christian faith and often have similar westernized surnames.
Some of the Sherbro interacted with Portuguese and English traders and intermarried with them in the mid-15th to 18th centuries (producing Afro-European clans such as the
As Creoles settled in places such as Bonthe for trading and missionary purposes, the Creoles intermarried with westernized Sherbros from as far back as the 18th century.[118]
Architecture
The Creole homeland[21] is a mountainous, narrow peninsula on the coast of west Africa. At its northern tip lies Freetown, the capital.[119][120][2] The peninsula's mountain range is covered by tropical rainforests split by deep valleys and adorned with impressive waterfalls. White sand beaches line the Atlantic coast. The whole of Sierra Leone covers some 72,500 square kilometres.
Traditional Creole architecture in the colonial period included a variety of architectural styles ranging and consisting of English-style mansions, smaller to medium stone or brick houses, and traditional one or two-story wooden houses built on stone foundations reminiscent of those found in the Old South, the West Indies or Louisiana.
The distinctive style of Creole wooden or "board" housing was brought by the Settlers from
Despite their dilapidated appearance, some of the remaining traditional Creole board houses have a distinctive air, with dormers, box windows, shutters, glass panes, and balconies. The elite live in attractive neighbourhoods such as Hill Station, above Freetown. A large dam in the mountains[121] provides a reliable supply of water and electricity to this area.
Admixture
Like their
After the
Through the Maroons, some Creoles probably also have indigenous Amerindian
On the voyage between
Alongside the Americo-Liberians, the Creoles of Sierra Leone are the only recognised ethnic group of African-American,[17] Liberated African, and Afro-Caribbean descent in West Africa.
Sierra Leone Creole Diaspora
Historic diaspora
Historically, Creoles spread Christianity and their lingua franca throughout West Africa, and because of this, Sierra Leone Creole communities existed in Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Senegal, Equatorial Guinea and Liberia. Many Creoles traded throughout West Africa, and some settled in new countries.
Liberated Africans and their colony-born children in the early to mid-19th centuries, and subsequently Creoles between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who settled in Nigeria, were known as
Present-day diaspora
As a result of normal immigration patterns, the Sierra Leone Civil War, and some discrimination at home,[132][133] many Sierra Leone Creoles live abroad in the United States and the United Kingdom. What has been called the "Creole Diaspora" is the migration of Sierra Leone Creoles abroad. Many Creoles attend formal and informal gatherings. A Creole or Krio Heritage Society is based in New York City, with branches in places including Texas.
Related communities
- Black Nova Scotians – ancestors of the Sierra Leone Creoles who fought for their freedom on the side of the British during the American Revolutionary War. Initially resettled in Nova Scotia, they arrived in West Africa where they founded the settlement of Freetown, Sierra Leone in 1792.
- Jamaican Maroons – ancestors of the Sierra Leone Creoles who freed themselves from slavery on the Colony of Jamaica. Initially resettled in Nova Scotia, after the Second Maroon War, they eventually arrived in Freetown in 1800.
- Afro-Caribbeans and Liberated Africans who founded the settlement of Liberiain 1822.
- Gambian Creoles – descendants of the Creoles of Sierra Leone who migrated to The Gambia in the late 19th and early 20th century.
- Saro people (Nigerian Creoles) – sub-ethnic group of the Sierra Leone Creoles who resettled in several Nigeriancities in the late 19th and early 20th century.
- Krio Fernandinos – descendants of the Creoles of Sierra Leone who migrated to Bioko island, Equatorial Guineain the late 19th century.
- Gold Coast Euro-Africans – extensively intermarried with Sierra Leone Creole migrants in colonial Ghana.
Notable people of Sierra Leone Creole descent
Name | Born | Died | Notability | Ref. | Image | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
William Vivour | 1830 | 1890 | Single most successful 19th-century farmer in Africa | [134][135] | ||
Davidson Nicol | 1925 | 1994 | Discovered the breakdown of insulin in the human body, a breakthrough for the treatment of diabetes | [76][136][137] | ||
James Pinson Davies | 1828 | 1906 | Pioneer of cocoa farming in West Africa | [138] | ||
John Farrell Easmon (seated, with brother Albert) | 1856 | 1900 | Coined the term "Blackwater Fever" and was the first to link the disease directly to malaria | [77] | ||
Christian Frederick Cole | 1852 | 1885 | First black Oxford and first African barrister to practice in the English courts
|
[139] | ||
Sir Samuel Lewis
|
1843 | 1903 | First mayor of Freetown and first West African to receive a knighthood | [140] | ||
Idris Elba | 1972 | — | Actor and winner of the Golden Globe awards
|
[141] | ||
Stella Jane Thomas | 1906 | 1974 | First black African woman West African female to qualify as a lawyer
|
[142][143] | ||
Samuel Coleridge-Taylor | 1875 | 1912 | Composer and conductor known for his three cantatas on the epic 1855 poem The Song of Hiawatha | [144] | ||
Sir Ernest Dunstan Morgan | 1896 | 1979 | Pharmaceutical entrepreneur and philanthropist | [145][146] | ||
Frances Claudia Wright | 1919 | 2010 | First Sierra Leonean woman to be called to the Bar in Great Britain and to practice law in Sierra Leone | [147] | ||
Dame Linda Dobbs | 1951 | — | First non-white High Court judge in Great Britain | |||
Constance Cummings-John | 1918 | 2000 | Educator, politician and first mayoress of Freetown
|
[150] | ||
Emanuel Adeniyi Thomas | 1914 | 1945 | First officer of West African origin
|
[151] | ||
Sir Kitoye Ajasa (born: Edmund Macauley) | 1866 | 1937 | Legislator during the colonial period and first Nigerian to receive a knighthood
|
[152][153] | ||
Sir Ernest Beoku-Betts
|
1895 | 1957 | Jurist and one-time mayor of Freetown | [154] | ||
Charles Odamtten Easmon | 1913 | 1994 | Performed the first successful open-heart surgery in West Africa
|
[155] | ||
Sir Henry Lightfoot Boston | 1898 | 1969 | First African Governor-General of Sierra Leone
|
[156] | ||
Christopher Okoro Cole | 1921 | 1990 | Chief Justice , later interim Governor-General and President of Sierra Leone
|
[157] | ||
Samuel Benjamin Thomas | 1833 | 1901 | Philanthropist, entrepreneur and one of the richest men in 19th-century Africa | [62] | ||
Adelaide Casely-Hayford | 1868 | 1960 | Activist and pioneer of women's education in Sierra Leone | [158] | ||
Lati Hyde-Forster | 1911 | 2001 | First female graduate of the oldest western-style university in Africa
|
[159][160] | ||
Gladys Casely-Hayford | 1904 | 1950 | Playwright and first author to write in the Krio language | [161] | ||
Clifford Nelson Fyle | 1933 | 2006 | Author of the Krio-English Dictionary and the Sierra Leone National Anthem
|
[162] | ||
Sir Émile Fashole-Luke | 1895 | 1980 | Chief Justice and Speaker of the House of Parliament of Sierra Leone | [163][164] | ||
William Broughton Davies | 1831 | 1906 | First West African to qualify as a medical doctor
|
[165] | ||
Ulric Emmanuel Jones | 1940 | 2020 | First Sierra Leonean neurosurgeon
|
[166] | ||
Andrew Juxon-Smith | 1931 | 1996 | Commander of the armed forces and Head of State of Sierra Leone | [167] | ||
James Africanus Horton | 1835 | 1883 | Surgeon, scientist and political thinker who worked towards African independence a century before it occurred | [168][169] | ||
Agnes Yewande Savage | 1906 | 1964 | First West African woman to qualify as a medical doctor | [170] | ||
Murietta Olu-Williams | 1923 | — | First woman in Africa to achieve the rank of Civil Service
|
[171] | ||
Charles Burgess King
|
1875 | 1961 | Former President of Liberia | [172] | ||
Samuel Ajayi Crowther | 1809 | 1891 | Clergyman and first Anglican Bishop of West Africa
|
[173] | ||
Adesanya Kwamina Hyde | 1915 | 1993 | Royal Air Force aviator awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for acts of valour and courage | [174][175] | ||
Sir Samuel Bankole-Jones
|
1911 | 1981 | Chief Justice and first Sierra Leonean president of the Court of Appeal | [176] | ||
Valentine Strasser | 1967 | — | Army officer and Head of State of Sierra Leone | [177] | ||
John Clavell Smythe
|
1915 | 1996 | attorney-general of Sierra Leone
|
[178] | ||
George Gurney Nicol | 1856 | 1888 | Cambridge University
|
[179][180] | ||
Sir Salako Benka-Coker | 1900 | 1965 | First Sierra Leonean Chief Justice of the Supreme Court | [181] | ||
Napheesa Collier | 1996 | — | Professional 2020 Summer Olympic Games
|
[182] | ||
Ryan Giggs | 1973 | — | Welsh football coach and former player, regarded as one of the greatest players of his generation | [183][184] | ||
Leonard Benker Johnson | 1902 | 1974 | British Empire Boxing champion, considered to be one of the best middleweights of his era. | [185] |
See also
- African-American diaspora
- African Americans in Africa
- African Americans in the Revolutionary War
- Atlantic Creole
- Atlantic World
- Back-to-Africa movement
- Birchtown, Nova Scotia
- Black Loyalists
- Book of Negroes
- Creolization
- Church Missionary Society
- The Cotton Tree
- Door of Return
- Dunmore's Proclamation
- Gullah
- Gumbe
- Jamaican Maroon Creole
- History of Sierra Leone
- Outline of Sierra Leone
- Philipsburg Proclamation
- Rough Crossings
- Sierra Leonean nationality law
- Timeline of Freetown
Explanatory notes
- ^ The Creoles are Christians, whether nominal or in practice, at over 98 percent. Recently, some scholars consider the Oku ethnic group to be Creoles,[19] although others reject this premise given the differentiation in admixture, religion, and cultural practices between the Oku and Creoles, such as the practice of female genital mutilation, bundu society membership and polygamy among the Oku people[20]
- ^ Webster's online etymological dictionary states the meaning of creole as a "person born in a country but of a people not indigenous to it," but also notes that the meaning varies according to local use.
- ^ Awujoh originates from the Yoruba Liberated African ancestry of the Creoles. Awujoh ceremonies are held for the protection of newborns and newlyweds by ancestral spirits and as a means to acquire guidance and wisdom regarding aspects of death.[95]
- ^ The word peoples is specifically used as the plural of people in its sense as a collective singular noun referring to a nation, or tribe, or other community, as in Indigenous Peoples or the many peoples of the world. This usage emphasizes that you're talking about several different specific groups that share a commonality. This can be important for clarity—the many people of the world means something different from the many peoples of the world. In practical terms, using peoples in this way can help to prevent erasure and homogenization of groups that are often lumped together in ways that obscure their specific, complex identities. In this way, the term Indigenous Peoples emphasizes the vast diversity among the world's Indigenous groups while also implying that there are, in fact, separate and distinct groups.[122]
References
Citations
- ^ a b c d e "CIA World Factbook (2022)". www.cia.gov. 14 February 2023.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8020-7402-7. Originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976).
- ^ .
- ^ a b Colonial Office Brief: CO554/2884, Note on the Attorney General's 'Note of the Supreme Court Judgement', 10 August 1960, op.cit.
- ^ R.W. July, Nineteenth Century Negritude: Edward W. Blyden in the Journal of African History, v, 1964, p. 77, n. 9. "This attitude to ‘mulattoes’ was of course racialist in view; cf. Burton, op. cit. p, 271 – ‘the worst class of all is the mulatto’. The correspondence recently published in Holden, op. cit. shows that Blyden had developed his views about ‘mulattoes’ during his conflicts with the Americo-Liberians in Monrovia, but his public writings were less outspoken about Liberia than they were about Freetown."
- ^ "Liberia Country Study: The True Whig Ascendancy" Global Security
- ^ a b Galli, S. (2022). "Socioeconomic Status and Group Belonging: Evidence from Early-Nineteenth-Century Colonial West Africa". Social Science History, 46(2), 349–372. doi:10.1017/ssh.2021.47.
- ^ a b c d Stefania Galli (2019), "Marriage patterns in a black Utopia: Evidence from early nineteenth-century colonial Sierra Leone", The History of the Family, 24:4, 744–768, DOI: 10.1080/1081602X.2019.1637361.
- ^ a b c Harcourt Fuller & Jada Benn Torres (2018), "Investigating the 'Taíno' ancestry of the Jamaican Maroons: a new genetic (DNA), historical, and multidisciplinary analysis and case study of the Accompong Town Maroons", Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies / Revue canadienne des études latino-américaines et caraïbes, 43:1, 47–78, DOI: 10.1080/08263663.2018.1426227.
- ^ S2CID 30255510.
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- ^ Arthur Porter, Creoledom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp.53, 58
- ^ ISBN 9781617031069.)
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A substantial part of this ex-slave population was Yoruba, but members of ethnic groups from other regions of the Atlantic (Igbo, Efik, Fante, etc) were also very much in evidence in this coterie of Liberated Africans. Individuals from ethnic communities indigenous to Sierra Leone were significantly represented among the Liberated Africans [...] Many a Temne, Limba, Mende, and Loko resident of Freetown, influenced by local European officials and missionaries, would come in time to shed their indigenous names, and cultural values, to take on a Creole identity which gave them a better chance of success in the rarefied Victorian ambience[sic] of a progressively westernized Freetown society.
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In neighboring Sierra Leone, the analogous group of liberated Africans delivered there by the British Navy are generally seen as having played a crucial role in the evolution of Krio.
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General bibliography
- Porter, Arthur (1966). Creoledom: A study of the development of Freetown society. Oxford University Press. ASIN B0007IT722.
- Spitzer, Leo (1974). The Creoles of Sierra Leone: Responses to colonialism, 1870–1945. University of Wisconsin Press; 1st edition. ISBN 978-0-299-06590-4.
- Wyse, Akintola (1989). The Krio of Sierra Leone: An Interpretive History. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-031-7.
- Campbell, Mavis; Ross, George (1993). George Ross and the Maroons : from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone. Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0-86543-384-7.
- Lewis-Coker, Eyamide (2018). Creoles of Sierra Leone: Proverbs, Parables, Wise Sayings. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-5462-5273-3.
- Dixon-Fyle, Mac; Cole, Gibril (2005). New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio. Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8204-7937-8.
- Schama, Simon (2005). Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution. BBC Books. ISBN 0-06-053916-X.
- Conteh, Doris (2021). The Creoles of Sierra Leone. Independently Published. ISBN 979-8504488066.
- Walker, James (1992). The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-7402-7.
- Braidwood, Stephen (1994). Black Poor and White Philanthropists: London's Blacks and the Foundation of the Sierra Leone Settlement, 1786–1791. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-0-85323-377-0.
- Baron, Robert; Cara, Ana (2013). Creolization as Cultural Creativity. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-61703-949-2.
- Teniola, Eric (2013). "The Creoles in Nigeria (2)". Daily Independent. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- Whiteman, Kye (1 October 2013). Lagos: A Cultural History. Interlink Publishing Group, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-62371-040-8. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
- Wyse, Akintola (1990). H.C. Bankole-Bright and politics in colonial Sierra Leone, 1919–1958. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53333-1.
- Paracka, Daniel (2003). The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94795-4.