Krishnaism
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Krishnaism is a term used in scholarly circles to describe large group of independent
The teachings of the
The most remarkable
History
Overview
Krishnaism originates in the first millennium BCE, as the theological system of the
Krishnaism is a non-Vedic tradition in origin, but it further developed its appeal towards orthodox believers through the syncretism of these traditions with the Mahabharata epic. In particular Krishnaism incorporated more or less superficially the Vedic supreme deity Vishnu, who appears in the Rigveda.[note 3] Krishnaism further becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the Medieval period.
Ancient traditions. Northern India
Krishnaite theology and cult originate in the first millennium BCE in the Northern India. The theology of the Bhagavad Gita (around 3rd–2nd centuries BCE) was the first Krishnaite theological system, if, according to Friedhelm Hardy, to read Gita as itself and not in the light of the Mahabharata frame with Vishnu-focussed doctrine.[3] There is no concept of the avatara, which was introduced only in 4th or 5th century CE. There is Krishna as an eternal himself, unmanifest Vishnu.[3] As Krishna says:
Whenever dharma suffering a decline, I emit myself [into the physical world]
— Bhagavad Gita 4.7[3]
Early Krishnaism already flourished several centuries BCE with the cult of the heroic
A branch which flourished with the decline of
The character of
By the time of its incorporation into the
Early medieval traditions. Southern and Eastern India
By the Early Middle Ages, Krishnaism had risen to a major current of Vaishnavism.[6]
According to Friedhelm Hardy,[note 5] there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism," despite the tendency to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions.[25] South Indian texts show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, so ubiquitous in later North Indian text and imagery.[27] Early writings in Dravidian culture such as Manimekalai and the Cilappatikaram present Krishna, his brother, and favourite female companions in the similar terms.[27] Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation" of the bhakti of the Tamil alvars.[28]
Devotion to southern Indian Mal (
At the same ages, in East India, the Jagannathism (a.k.a. Odia Vaishnavism) was origined as the cult of the god Jagannath (lit. ''Lord of the Universe'')—an abstract form of Krishna.[30] Jagannathism is a regional, previously state, temple-centered version of Krishnaism,[3][31] where Lord Jagannath is understood as a principal god, Purushottama and Para Brahman, but can also be regarded as a non-sectarian syncretic Vaishnavite and pan-Hindu cult.[32] According to the Vishnudharma Purana (c. 4th century), Krishna is woshipped in the form of Purushottama in Odra (Odisha).[33] The Jagannath temple in Puri, Odisha is particularly significant within the tradition and one of the major pilgrimage destinations for Hindus since about 800 CE, later became a centre of attraction for a number of both Krishnaite and other Vaishnava acharyas,[34] and a place where for the first time the famous poem Gita Govinda was introduced into the liturgy.[35]
Vaishnavism in the 8th century came into contact with the
At this period emerged one of key texts for Krishnaites, the Bhagavata Purana, that promotes bhakti (devotion) to Krishna.[37] In it one reads:
Kṛṣņa is Bhagavān himself
— Bhagavata Purana 1.3.28[3]
Another notable bouquet of glory of Krishna was the poems in Sanskrit, possibly by
High and late medieval traditions
This is the most important period, it was at this time that Krishnaism acquired the form in which its traditions exist to nowadays. The bhakti movement of the high and later Middle Ages Hinduism emerges in the 9th or 10th century, and is based (its Krishnaite form) on the Bhagavata Purana, Narada Bhakti Sutra, and other scriptures. In North and East India, Krishnaism gave rise to various Medieval movements.[40] Early Bhakti Krishnaite pioneers include a Telugu-origin philosopher Nimbarkacharya (12th or 13th century CE), a founder of the first Bhakti-era Krishnaite Nimbarka Sampradaya (a.k.a. Kumara sampradaya),[41] and his an Odisha-born friend, poet Jayadeva, author of Gita Govinda.[42][43][44] Both promoted Radha Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are his forms.[41][45] Nimbarka more than any other acharyas gave Radha a place as a deity.[46]
Since 15th century in
The other 15th–16th centuries Bhakti poet-
The most emerged Krishnaite guru-acharyas of 15th–16th centuries were
In the Western Indian state of Maharashtra, saint poets of the Warkari tradition such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath, and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba, a local form of Krishna, from the late of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[54] Before the Warkari sampradaya, Krishna devotion (Pancha-Krishna, i.e. five Krishnas) became well established in Maharashtra due to the rise of Mahanubhava Panth founded by the 13th-century Gujarati acharya Chakradhara.[55] Both schools, Warkari and Mahanubhava, venerated Krishna and his wife Rukmini (Rakhumai).[3]
In 16th century in
Modern times
The Pranami Sampradaya (Pranami Panth) emerged in the 17th century in Gujarat, based on the Krishna-focussed syncretist Hindu-Islamic teachings of a Sindh-born Devchandra Maharaj (1581–1655) and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath (1618–1694).[57]
During the 18th century at Kolkata existed the Sakhībhāvakas community, whose members ware female dress in order to identify themselves with the gopis, companions of Radha.[3]
In non-Indo-Aryan Manipur region, after a short period of Ramaism penetration, Gaudiya Vaishnavism spread, especially from beginning the second quarter of the 18th century (Manipuri Vaishnavism, the lineage of Natottama Thakura).[58]
In the 1890s in Bengal,
At the beginning of the 20th century the first attempts at a Krishnaite mission in the West began. A pioneer of American mission has become Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914) from the circle of mentioned Prabhu Jagadbandhu.[60] Baba Bharati founded in 1902 the short-lived "Krishna Samaj" society in New York City and built a temple in Los Angeles.[61][62] He was an author of the first full-length treatment of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in English Sree Krishna—the Lord of Love (New York, 1904);[63] the author sent the book to Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, who was intrigued and used text for composition his notable A Letter to a Hindu.[64] Baba Bharati's followers later formed several organisations in US, including now defunct the Order of Living Service and the AUM Temple of Universal Truth.[62]
Within Gaudiya Vaishnavism in 20th century was also established the reform Gaudiya Math and its largest worldwide successor, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (a.k.a. Hare Krishna Movement), formed in New York by acharya A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.[3]
There is the number of
Krishnaite authors continue to create major theological and poetic works. For instance, the Shri Radhacharita Mahakavyam—the 1980s epic poem of Kalika Prasad Shukla that focuses on devotion to Krishna as the universal lover—"one of the rare, high-quality works in Sanskrit in the twentieth century."[65]
List of living Krishnaite traditions
Krishnaism is mainly subdivided into three categories[66] –
- Exclusive worship of Krishna as supreme god or as incarnation of Vishnu.
- Exclusive worship of Radha as original shakti of Krishna or Vishnu.
- Worship of Radha Krishna conjointly.
Radha Krishna as the Supreme[3]
|
Krishna with Rukmini as the Supreme[3]
|
Krishna as the Supreme
|
Remark: Radha Vallabh Sampradaya is conditionally Krishnaite, representing such current as Radhaism, due to the worship of Radha as the supreme deity, where Krishna is only her most intimate servant.[3][68]
Beliefs
The term "Krishnaism" has been used to describe the schools, related to
Krishnaism is often also called Bhagavatism, after the Bhagavata Purana which asserts that Krishna is "Bhagavan Himself," and subordinates to itself all other forms: Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vāsudeva, Janardana, and so on.[note 10]
Krishna
Vaishnavism is a monotheistic religion, centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. It is sometimes described as a "polymorphic monotheism", since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms. In Krishnaism this deity is Krishna—often together with his consort Radha as deity Radha Krishna[78]—sometimes referred as intimate deity — as compared with the numerous four-armed forms of Narayana or Vishnu.[79]
Krishna is also worshiped across many other traditions of Hinduism. Krishna is often described as having the appearance of a dark-skinned person and is depicted as a young cowherd boy playing a flute or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance, as in the Bhagavad Gita.[80]
Krishna and the stories associated with him appear across a broad spectrum of different Hindu
Common scriptures
The most remarkable
As Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita, establishing the basis of Krishnaism himself:
- "And of all yogins, he who full of faith worships Me, with his inner self abiding in Me, him, I hold to be the most attuned (to me in Yoga)."[97]
- "After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest perfection."[98]
In
All of the above-mentioned incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Sri Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead (Svayam Bhagavan).[100]
Not all commentators on the Bhagavata Purana stress this verse, however a majority of Krishna-centered and contemporary commentaries highlight this verse as a significant statement.[101] Jiva Goswami has called it Paribhasa-sutra, the "thesis statement" upon which the entire book or even theology is based.[102][103]
In another place of the Bhagavata Purana (10.83.5–43) those who are named as wives of Krishna all explain to Uraupadi how the 'Lord himself' (Svayam Bhagavan, Bhagavata Purana 10.83.7) came to marry them. As they relate these episodes, several of the wives speak of themselves as Krishna's devotees.
Edwin F. Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana 10th Book as:
The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute personal aspect of godhead — the personality behind the term Ishvara and the ultimate aspect of Brahman.[106]
- Other common scriptures
- Brahma Vaivarta Purana is one of major Puranas, that centers around Krishna and Radha, identifying Krishna as the Supreme Being and asserting that all deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Ganesha are incarnations of Him;[3]
- Gita Govinda is a poem of Jayadeva that firstly considers the cult Radha Krishna,[42][43][3][44] where Krishna speaks to Radha:
O woman with desire, place on this patch of flower-strewn floor your lotus foot,
And let your foot through beauty win,
To me who am the Lord of All, O be attached, now always yours.
O follow me, my little Radha.— Jayadeva, Gita Govinda[42]
- Narayaniyam is Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri's poem as a summary of the Bhagavata Purana.
- Padma Purana deals a big part with Krishnaism, which is mostly the same as the theme of Brahmavaivarta Purana, mainly Krishna's greatness begins at the later half of the fifth Canto.[107]
Philosophy and theology
A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Krishnaite texts. The teachings of the Bhagavad Gita can be considered as the first Krishnaite system of theology in terms of Bhakti yoga.[3]
The Bhagavata Purana synthesizes an Vedanta, Samkhya, and devotionalized Yoga praxis framework for Krishna but one that proceeds through loving devotion to Krishna.[106]
Krishna theology is presented in a pure monism (Advaita Vedanta framework by Vallabhacharya, who was the founder of Shuddhadvaita school of philosophy.[111]
The acharya-founders of the remaining Krishnaite sampradayas did not create new schools of philosophy, following the old ones or nor attaching importance to philosophical speculations. Thus, the philosophical base of the
Practices
Maha-mantra
A mantra is a sacred utterance. The most basic and known it among the Krishnaites—Mahā-mantra ("Great Mantra")—is a 16-word mantra in Sanskrit which is mentioned in the Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad:[113][114]
Hare Rāma Hare Rāma
Rāma Rāma Hare Hare
Hare Kṛṣṇa Hare Kṛṣṇa
Kṛṣṇa Kṛṣṇa Hare Hare— Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad
Its variety within Gaudiya Vaishnavism looks as:
Hare Kṛṣṇa Hare Kṛṣṇa
Kṛṣṇa Kṛṣṇa Hare Hare
Hare Rāma Hare Rāma
Rāma Rāma Hare Hare
The Maha-mantra Radhe Krishna of Nimbarka Sampradaya is as follows:
Rādhe Kṛṣṇa Rādhe Kṛṣṇa
Kṛṣṇa Kṛṣṇa Rādhe Rādhe
Rādhe Shyām Rādhe Shyām
Shyām Shyām Rādhe Rādhe
Kirtan
A characteristic part of spiritual practice, in almost all traditions of Krishnaism, is a kirtan, a collective musical performance with chanting of the glories of God.
The Marathi
In Vrindavan of
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu popularized adolescent the love between Radha and Krishna based extatic public san-kirtan in Bengal, with Hare Krishna mantra other songs and dances, wherein the love between Radha and Krishna was symbolized as the love between one's soul and God.[116]
Sankardev in Assam helped establish satras (temples and monasteries) with kirtan-ghar (also called namghar), for singing and dramatic performance of Krishna-related theology.[118]
Holy places
The three main pilgrimage sites related to Krishna circuit are "
Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, is often considered to be a holy place by majority of traditions of Krishnaism. It's a center of Krishna worship and the area includes places like Govardhana and Gokula associated with Krishna from time immemorial. Many millions of bhaktas or devotees of Krishna visit these places of pilgrimage every year and participate in a number of festivals that relate to the scenes from Krishna's life on Earth.[96][120][121]
On the other hand, Goloka is considered the eternal abode of Krishna, Svayam Bhagavan according to some Krishnaite schools, including Gaudiya Vaishnavism. The scriptural basis for this is taken in Brahma Samhita and Bhagavata Purana.[122]
The Dwarkadhish Temple (Dwarka, Jujarat) and the Jagannath Temple (Puri, Odisha) are particularly significant in Krishnaism, and are regarded have been two of the four major pilgrimage destinations for most Hindus as the Char Dham pilgrimage sites.[34]
Demography
There are adherents of Krishnaism in all strata of Indian society, but a tendency has been revealed, for example, Bengal Gaudiya Vaishnavas belong to the lower middle castes, while the upper castes as well as lowest castes and tribes are
Krishnaism has a limited following outside of India, especially associated with 1960s counter-culture, including a number of celebrity followers, such as
Krishnaism and Christianity
Debaters have often alleged a number of parallels between Krishnaism and
Gallery of key Krishnaite temples
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Dwarkadhish Temple, Dwarka, Gujarat
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Jagannath Temple, Puri, Odisha
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Govind Dev Ji Temple, Jaipur, Rajasthan
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Vithoba Temple, Maharashtra
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Radha Damodar Temple, Junagadh, Gujarat
-
Guruvayur Temple, Guruvayur, Kerala
-
Udupi Sri Krishna Matha, Udupi, Karnataka
-
Ukhra Mahanta Asthal, West Bengal
-
Bankey Bihari Temple, Vrindavan
-
Rasmancha, Bishnupur, West Bengal
-
Lalji Temple, Kalna
-
Ningthoukhong Gopinath Temple, Manipur
-
Radha Raman Temple, Vrindavan
-
Yogapith Temple, Mayapur
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Gour Nitai Temple, Gaudiya Math, Kolkata
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Sri Sri Radha Krishna Mandir, Chennai
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Sri Radha Krishna-chandra Temple, Bangalore
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Madhupur Satra, West Bengal
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Barpeta Satra, Assam
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Athkheliya Namghar, Golaghat, Assam
-
KrishnaPatna, Madhya Pradesh
Notes
- ^ "The term Kṛṣṇaism, then, can be used to summarize a large group of independent systems of beliefs and devotion that developed over more than two thousand years ..."[2]
- ^ "Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vāsudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Divine Child Krishna — a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion."[6]
- ^ "Non-Vedic in origin and development, Kṛṣṇaism now sought affiliation with Vedism so that it could become acceptable to the still not inconsiderable orthodox elements among the people. That is how Viṣṇu of the Ṛgveda came to be assimilated—more or less superficially—into Kṛṣṇaism."[8]
- ^ "The origin of Vaiṣṇavism as a theistic sect can by no means be traced back to the Ṛgvedic god Viṣṇu. In fact, Vaiṣṇavism is in no sense Vedic in origin. (...) Strangely, the available evidence shows that the worship of Vāsudeva, and not that of Viṣṇu, marks the beginning of what we today understand by Vaiṣṇavism. This Vāsudevism, which represents the earliest known phase of Vaiṣṇavism, must already have become stabilized in the days of Pāṇini (sixth to fifth centuries bce)."[4]
- Tamil saints, Sangam Tamil literature and Alvars' Krishna-centered devotion in the rasa of the emotional union and the dating and history of the Bhagavata Purana.[25][26]
- ^ "The origin of Vaiṣṇavism as a theistic sect can by no means be traced back to the Ṛgvedic god Viṣṇu. In fact, Vaiṣṇavism is in no sense Vedic in origin. (...) Strangely, the available evidence shows that the worship of Vāsudeva, and not that of Viṣṇu, marks the beginning of what we today understand by Vaiṣṇavism. This Vāsudevism, which represents the earliest known phase of Vaiṣṇavism, must already have become stabilized in the days of Pāṇini (sixth to fifth centuries bce)."[4]
- ^ "(...) After attaining to fame eternal, he again took up his real nature as Brahman. The most important among Visnu's avataras is undoubtedly Krsna, the black one, also called Syama. For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself."[72]
- ^ "On the touch-stone of this definition of the final and positive characteristic of Sri Krsna as the Highest Divinity as Svayam-rupa Bhagavan."[73]
- ^ "The Bengal School identifies the Bhagavat with Krishna depicted in the Shrimad-Bhagavata and presents him as its highest personal God."[74]
- ^ "It becomes clear that the personality of Bhagvan Krishna subordinates to itself the titles and identities of Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana etc. The pervasive theme, then, of the Bhagavata Puran is the identification of Bhagavan with Krishna."[77]
- ^ "..Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, certainly the most popular religious books in the whole of India. Not only was Krsnaism influenced by the identification of Krsna with Vishnu, but also Vaishnavism as a whole was partly transformed and reinvented in the light of the popular and powerful Krishna religion. Bhagavatism may have brought an element of cosmic religion into Krishna worship; Krishna has certainly brought a strongly human element into Bhagavatism. ... The center of Krishna-worship has been for a long time Brajbhumi, the district of Mathura that embraces also Vrindavana, Govardhana, and Gokula, associated with Krishna from the time immemorial. Many millions of Krishna bhaktas visit these places ever year and participate in the numerous festivals that reenact scenes from Krshnas life on Earth."[96]
- ^ "John M. Robertson wrote a learned treatise entitled "Christ and Krishna", and in that work he argued that there was no direct contact between Krishnaism and Christianity; but that both sects were derived from an earlier common source."[130]
References
- ^ Mullick 1898; Hein 1986, pp. 296–317; Hardy 1987, pp. 387–392; Flood 1996, p. 117; Matchett 2001; Bryant 2007, p. 381.
- ^ Hardy 1987, p. 392.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Hardy 1987, pp. 387–392.
- ^ a b c Dandekar 1987, p. 9499.
- ^ See also: Stewart 2010
- ^ a b c Klostermaier 2005, p. 206.
- ^ a b Welbon 1987.
- ^ Eliade, Mircea, ed. (1987). The Encyclopedia of religion. Vol. 15. MacMillan. p. 170.
- ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
- ^ Osmund Bopearachchi, Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence, 2016.
- ISBN 978-90-04-10758-8.
- ^ a b Basham 1968, pp. 667–670.
- ^ Hudson 1983.
- ^ Bryant 2007, p. 4.
- ^ Hein 1986, pp. 296–317.
- ^ Goswami 1956.
- ^ a b Flood 1996, pp. 119–120.
- ISBN 90-04-10758-4.
- ISBN 978-1-351-12360-0.
- ISBN 978-88-7652-648-0.
- ^ "The affix vun comes in the sense of "this is his object of veneration" after the words 'Vâsudeva' and 'Arjuna'", giving Vâsudevaka and Arjunaka. Source: Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0 Panini 4-3-98
- ^ a b "Vaishnava". philtar.ucsm.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
- Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar (1976). Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar as an Indologist: A Symposium. India: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. pp. 38–40.
- ISBN 90-04-02598-7.
- ^ a b c Hardy 1981.
- ^ "Book review: Friedhelm Hardy, Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krishna Devotion in South India. Oxford University Press, Nagaswamy 23 (4): 443 — Indian Economic & Social History Review". ier.sagepub.com. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ a b Monius, Anne E. "Dance Before Doom. Krishna In The Non-Hindu Literature of Early Medieval South India" in Beck 2005, pp. 139–149
- ^ Norman Cutler (1987) Songs of Experience: The Poetics of Tamil Devotion, p. 13
- ^ a b "Devotion to Mal (Mayon)". philtar.ucsm.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
- ^ a b Mukherjee 1981; Eschmann, Kulke & Tripathi 1978; Hardy 1987, pp. 387–392; Rajaguru 1992; Guy 1992, pp. 213–230; Starza 1993; Kulke & Schnepel 2001; Miśra 2005, chapter 9. Jagannāthism.
- ^ Mukherjee 1981.
- ^ Miśra 2005, p. 97, chapter 9. Jagannāthism.
- ^ Starza 1993, p. 76.
- ^ a b Bryant 2007, pp. 139–141.
- ^ Datta 1988, pp. 1419–1420.
- ^ Ganguli translation of Mahabharata, Chapter 148
- ^ Bryant 2007, pp. 111–113.
- ^ Archer 2004, 5.3. Later Poetry.
- ^ Stewart 2010, p. 303.
- ^ Lorenzen 1995.
- ^ a b c Hardy 1987, pp. 387–392; Clémentin-Ojha 1990, pp. 327–376; Ramnarace 2014; Vemsani 2016, p. 197.
- ^ a b c Archer 2004, 5.2. The Gita Govinda.
- ^ a b Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jayadeva's Gītagovinda 1977.
- ^ a b Datta 1988, pp. 1414–1423.
- ^ "Nimbarka". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
- ^ a b Datta 1988, p. 1415.
- ^ a b Basu 1932; Dasgupta 1962; Das 1988; Hine 2003; Hayes 2005, pp. 19–32; Sardella & Wong 2020, part 2.
- ^ Stewart 1986, pp. 152–154; Dalal 2010, p. 385, Shrikrishna Kirtana.
- ^ Archer 2004, 5.3. Later Poetry; Hardy 1987, pp. 387–392; Hawley 2005; Rosenstein 1997; Schomer & McLeod 1987; Sivaramkrishna & Roy 1996.
- ^ a b White & Redington 1990, pp. 373–374; Redington 1992, pp. 287–294; Patel 2005, pp. 127–136.
- ^ a b Kennedy 1925; De 1960; Chakravarti 1985; Elkman 1986; Rosen 1994; Chatterjee 1995, pp. 1–14; Gupta 2007; Stewart 2010; Gupta 2014.
- ^ a b Sarma 1966; Murthy 1973; Medhi 1978; Neog 1980; Bryant 2007, chapter 6.
- ^ Dalal 2010, pp. 373–374.
- ^ a b Iwao 1988, pp. 183–197; Glushkova 2000, pp. 47–58.
- ^ a b Feldhaus 1983; Dalal 2010, Mahanubhava.
- ^ a b White 1977; Snell 1991; Brzezinski 1992, pp. 472–497; Rosenstein 1998, pp. 5–18; Beck 2005, pp. 65–90.
- ^ a b Khan 2002; Dalal 2010, Pranami Panth; Toffin 2012, pp. 249–254.
- ^ Singh 2004, pp. 125–132.
- ^ Carney 2020, pp. 140–141.
- ^ Carney 2020, pp. 135–136, 140–143.
- ^ Carney 2020, pp. 152.
- ^ a b Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 79–80, Baba Premanand Bharati.
- ^ Carney 2020, p. 140.
- ^ Carney 2020, p. 154.
- ^ Dalal 2010, p. 384, Shri Radhacharita Mahakavyam.
- ^ Balfour, Edward (1885). The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures (3rd ed.). London: B. Quaritch. p. 62.
- ^ Carney 2020, pp. 140–143.
- ^ Beck 2005, p. 76.
- ^ Flood 1996, p. 117.
- ^ Matchett 2001.
- ^ Bryant 2007, p. 309.
- ISBN 978-90-04-07863-5.
- ^ Indian Philosophy & Culture. Vol. 20. Institute of Oriental Philosophy (Vrindāvan, India), Institute of Oriental Philosophy, Vaishnava Research Institute, contributors. The Institute. 1975. p. 148.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ De 1960, p. 113.
- ^ McDaniel 2005, p. 39.
- ISBN 0-8407-4419-6.
- ^ Sheridan 1986, p. 53.
- ^ Banerjee 1993.
- ^ Scheweig 2004, pp. 13–17
- ^ Elkman 1986.
- ^ "Chaitanya Charitamrita Madhya 20.165". Archived from the original on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
- ^ Richard Thompson, Ph. D. (December 1994). "Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism". ISKCON Communications Journal. 1 (2). Archived from the original on 4 January 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2008.
- S2CID 164194548.
- ^ Bryant 2007, Chapter 2.
- ^ Rosen 2007.
- ^ Matchett 2001, pp. 44–64.
- ^ Bryant 2007, Chapter 3.
- ^ Vaudeville 1962, pp. 31–40.
- ^ Miller 1975, pp. 655–671.
- ^ Bryant 2003.
- ^ Bryant 2007, Chapter 4.
- ^ James Mulhern (1959) A History of Education: A Social Interpretation p. 93
- ^ Franklin Edgerton (1925) The Bhagavad Gita: Or, Song of the Blessed One, India's Favorite Bible pp. 87–91
- ^ Charlotte Vaudeville has said, it is the 'real Bible of Krsnaism'.
- ^ Matchett 2001, p. 107.
- ^ a b Klostermaier 2005, p. 204.
- ^ Radhakrishan(1970), ninth edition, Blackie and son India Ltd., p.211, Verse 6.47
- ^ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 8.15". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved 14 January 2008.
- ^ Matchett 2001, p. 153 Bhag. Purana 1.3.28 :ete cāṁśa-kalāḥ puṁsaḥ kṛṣṇas tu bhagavān svayam :indrāri-vyākulaṁ lokaṁ mṛḍayanti yuge yuge
- Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Archived from the originalon 3 October 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
- ^ "Sri Krishna". www.stephen-knapp.com. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
- ISBN 0-9703581-0-5.
- Hari-namamr†a-vyakarana, Jiva Gosvami defines paribhasa-sutra as aniyame niyama-karini paribhasa: "A paribhasa-sutra implies a rule or theme where it is not explicitly stated." In other words, it gives the context in which to understand a series of apparently unrelated statements in a book.
- ^ Matchett 2001, p. 141
- ^ Matchett 2001, 10th canto transl.
- ^ a b Bryant 2007, p. 114.
- ^ Padma Purana Patala Khanda Fifth Canto, Motilal Bansaridas Publisher's Book 5 page 1950.
- ^ Elkman 1986; Gupta 2007; Bryant 2007, pp. 373–378.
- ^ Ramnarace 2014.
- ^ Elkman 1986; Gupta 2007; Bryant 2007, pp. 373–378; Gupta 2014.
- ^ Bryant 2007, pp. 479–480.
- ^ Beck 2005, pp. 67, 74.
- ^ Beck 1993, p. 199.
- ^ "Contents of the Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad". 16 April 2018. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
- ISBN 978-0863118241.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-139-91561-8.
- ^ Beck 2005, p. 67.
- ISBN 978-0-8386-3602-2.
- ^ Vemsani 2016, pp. 140–141.
- ^ Pauwels 2003, pp. 124–180.
- ^ Hawley 2020, front matter.
- ^ Schweig 2005, p. 10.
- ISBN 0-02-865735-7.
- ^ Brooks 1989.
- ISBN 0-306-80747-5.
- ^ Schweig 2005.
- ^ What Does Tulsi Gabbard Believe?, Kelefa Sanneh, The New Yorker, Oktober 30, 2017.
- ^ Tulsi Gabbard Had a Very Strange Childhood, Kerry Howley, New York Intelligencer, Juni 11, 2019.
- ^ The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors by Kersey Graves
- ISBN 0-910309-20-5.
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Further reading
- Anand, D. (1992). Krishna: The Living God of Braj. New Delhi: Shakti Malik Abhinav Publ. ISBN 81-7017-280-2.
- Bhattacharya, Sunil Kumar (1996). Krishna-cult in Indian Art. New Delhi: M. D. Publ. Pvt. ISBN 81-7533-001-5.
- Case, Margaret H. (2000). Seeing Krishna: The Religious World of a Brahman Family in Vrindavan. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513010-3.
- Couture, André (2006). The emergence of a group of four characters (Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha) in the Harivamsa: points for consideration. Journal of Indian Philosophy 34,6. pp. 571–585.
- Das, Kalyani (1980). Early Inscriptions of Mathurā: A Study. Punthi Pustak.[permanent dead link]
- Majumdar, Asoke Kumar (July–October 1955). "A Note on the Development of Radha Cult". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 36 (3/4): 231–257. JSTOR 44082959.
- Mishra, Baba (1999). "Radha and her contour in Orissan culture" in Orissan history, culture and archaeology. In Felicitation of Prof. P.K. Mishra. Ed. by S. Pradhan. (Reconstructing Indian History & Culture 16). New Delhi; pp. 243–259.
- Nash, J. (2012). "Re-examining Ecological Aspects of Vrindavan Pilgrimage". In L. Manderson; W. Smith; M. Tomlinson (eds.). Flows of Faith. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 105–121. ISBN 978-94-007-2931-5.
- Singer, M. (1966). Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes. Honolulu: East-West Center Press.
- Sinha, K.P. (1997). A critique of A.C. Bhaktivedanta. Calcutta.