Witchcraft in the Philippines
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In the Philippines, witches are said to use black magic and related practices, depending on the ethnic group they are associated with. Witchcraft in the Philippines is completely different from Western notions, as each ethnic group has their own definition and practices attributed to witches. The curses and other machinations of witches are often opposed by Filipino shamans associated with the indigenous Philippine folk religions.[1]
Terminology
Each ethnic group in the Philippines has their own terms for witches. Some of these are as follows:[2][3][4]
- Tagalog: mangkukulam, manggagaway
- Waray: aswang, malupad, malakat, mambabarang
- Bisaya: aswang, mambabarang
The practice of witchcraft among Filipino ethnic groups also has unique terms. Some of these are as follow:[5][6]
- Ilocano: tanem, tamay
- Tagalog: kulam, gaway
- Visayan: barang, hiwit, lágà, haplit, paktol, anyaw
- Moro: pantak
Black magic
Filipino witches are believed to have powers that cause harm to other people covertly. Healer-sorcerers who practice this kind of sorcery usually justify it as a form of criminal punishment, as a widespread belief is that black magic does not work on people who are innocent. Their targets are usually "wrongdoers" like thieves, adulterous spouses, or land grabbers. There are also "true" sorcerers who are said to have hereditary sorcerous powers. Unlike healers, they do not consider the justice of their actions. The latter type of sorcerers are often conflated with the evil supernatural beings capable of appearing human, like aswang and manananggal.[7][8][1]
One of the most common kinds of black magic is a malevolent use of sympathetic magic. This is known by various names like kulam, gaway (Tagalog); barang, hiwit, lágà (Visayan); tanem, tamay (Ilocano); and pantak (Moro). Despite the differences in terminology, the methods are almost identical across the Philippine islands (and indeed, across Southeast Asia). This type of sorcery uses beetles, effigies, poppets, a boiling pot or some other type of representation of the target victim.[a] These are usually "linked" by including bodily exuviae like hair or nail clippings. These are activated by chants, spells, or symbols (sometimes syncretized with Christian or Muslim rituals). The sorcerer then either harms the effigy to cause corresponding harm to the victim, or physically "sends" objects into the victim's body (which can range from insects, stones, to pins).[9][1][10] In some instances, the ingredients of the ritual themselves determine the effects. For example, adding seawater to a boiling pot "linked" to a victim is said to cause the victim's belly to swell and ache in time with the tides.[11] This type of sorcery was documented as early as the 17th century by Francisco Combés.[9][1]
Other malevolent powers are more direct. These include the ability to kill another person instantly with magic spells, the ability to cast
Some of these purportedly sorcerous powers may be explained by the use of poisons (hilo or lason) and sleight of hand. In most cases however, accusations of this type of black magic are often borne out of paranoia, moral panic, or mass hysteria against disliked or mistrusted members of the community, similar to the European witch-hunts. People accused of black magic were often subject to ostracization and in many cases, violence. This was especially true during the Spanish colonial period, where in one instance in the mid-19th century, a Filipino curate ordered the assassination of 57 people he suspected were sorcerers casting evil spells on his sick mother.[1]
Sorcerous "attacks" are most commonly treated with sumbalik (counter-spells or antidotes), which are themselves, a form of sorcery and do not usually require interaction with the spirits. They purportedly deflect the effects of the curse and return it to the caster. In extreme cases, sumbalik can kill the caster. Other healing rituals against sorcery do not harm the caster, but instead supposedly moves them to pity and thus revoke the curse.[11][12][13][10]
Methods
Kulam uses
Practitioners
There are various names for sorcerers in Philippine ethnic groups. Most of these names have negative connotations, and thus is also translated to "
Aswang
The
Mangkukulam
A mangkukulam can be considered a Filipino witch, literally meaning "a practitioner of kulam". A curse is called a sumpâ (/soom-PA/), which can also be translated as a "vow" or "oath" and "curse". A mangkukulam may use a voodoo doll and a needle to cast spells on people they want to take revenge on, but largely use natural magic and superstitions similar to an
Mambabarang
The Mambabarang is the Bisayan version of a sorcerer/sorceress, who uses insects and spirits to enter the body of any person they hate.
Usikan
The Usikan, also known as the Buyagan, is a type of Visayan sorcerer that can inflict harm through words (buyag). They can affect not only people, but also plants, animals, and inanimate objects. They cause harm by complimenting someone or something, either unwittingly or with malevolent intent. To protect against this, people carefully avoid accepting compliments from strangers and may say the phrase "pwera buyag" (from Spanish fuera buyag) immediately after giving a compliment or receiving one. Various beliefs hold that the Usikan can be recognized by having a dark tongue or by being born with teeth. Unlike the other types of "witches", the power of the Usikan is innate, and is not acquired by choice. Nor are they innately malevolent, and in most cases, they are believed to be unaware that they possess the power.[15]
Remedies
A typical belief of kulam is that curses are mitigated by finding the caster and bribing him or her to lift the curse. Superstitious people still attribute certain illnesses or diseases to kulam. This most often happens in rural areas, where an herbal doctor called an
Sorcerous "attacks" are most commonly treated with sumbalik (counter-spells or antidotes), which are themselves, a form of sorcery and do not usually require interaction with the spirits. They purportedly deflect the effects of the curse and return it to the caster. In extreme cases, sumbalik can kill the caster. Other healing rituals against sorcery do not harm the caster, but instead supposedly moves them to pity and thus revoke the curse.[11][12][13][10] Illnesses believed to be caused by sorcery are treated with counter-spells, simple antidotes, and physical healing.[7] Darker forms of remedies to kulam include Albularyos whipping the bewitched person with a Buntot Pagi (Stingray's Tail) until the afflicted is forced to divulge the witch's name and confronting him or her. This is done in the belief that the one who is getting hurt is the witch and not the bewitched.[citation needed]
See also
- Asian witchcraft
- Filipino shamans
- Gabâ or gabaa, the Cebuano concept of negative karma
Notes
References
- ^ ISBN 9789715425704.
- ^ Folk Practices and Beliefs in Leyte and Samar, Richard Arens, Divine Word University Publications, 1982
- ^ Customs of the Tagalogs, Juan de Plasencis, 1589
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Practices, F. R. Demetrio, Xavier University, 1991
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Practices, F. R. Demetrio, Xavier University, 1991
- ISBN 971-23-3543-7
- ^ ISBN 9780415941242.
- ^ a b c McClenon, James (1985). "Island of Sorcerers". Fate. 38 (9): 37–41. Archived from the original on September 17, 2019. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
- ^ a b c d McCoy, Alfred (1982). "Baylan : Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 10 (3): 141–194.
- ^ a b c d e f "Philippine Sorcery 101: 6 Methods and How to Counter Them". September 5, 2019.
- ^ S2CID 153002277.
- ^ a b c Tomada, Nathalie M. (October 3, 2010). "Mystical Siquijor". PhilStar Global. Retrieved July 15, 2018.
- ^ a b De Guzman, Daniel (September 27, 2017). "The Many Faces of Filipino Folk Healers". The Aswang Project. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
- ^ (McClenon, 1985
- ^ ISBN 9780520034204.
- ^ Anima, Nid (1978), Witchcraft, Filipino-style, Omar Publications, p. 16
- ISBN 971-91055-0-X
- ^ Mambabarang and Mangkukulam (PDF), retrieved December 20, 2017[permanent dead link]
- ^ Haas, Benjamin (October 30, 2011). "Witches in Philippines' Siquijor province are old hat". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-84540-333-1.
- JSTOR 29791795.
- ^ Myths of the Philippines; Gaverza, J.K., 2014, University of the Philippines Diliman
- Tony Perez Panibagong Kulam
- Illinois (1917). University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature. Original from the New York Public Library: The University of Illinois. p. 41.
- Regina Cieli Estrada(Regina Cieli's Art Shop) Brujeria Pilipinas Spells & Rituals for Complementary Healing
Further reading
- Neal Cruz (2008-10-31) "As I See It:Philippine mythological monsters". Philippine Daily Inquirer.