Kura–Araxes culture
Trialeti culture, Nakhchivan culture |
The Kura–Araxes culture (also named Kur–Araz culture, Mtkvari–Araxes culture, Early Transcaucasian culture) was an
Altogether, the early
The name of the culture is derived from the
Early history
The formative processes of the Kura-Araxes cultural complex, and the date and circumstances of its rise, have been long debated.
At many sites, the Sioni culture layers can be seen as intermediary between Shulaver-Shomu-Tepe layers and the Kura-Araxes layers.[8] This kind of stratigraphy warrants a chronological place of the Sioni culture at around 4000 BCE.[9]
Some scholars consider the Kartli and Kakheti areas as key to forming the earliest phase of the Kura–Araxes culture.[9] To a large extent, this appears as an indigenous culture of Caucasus that was formed over a long period, and at the same time incorporating foreign influences.
There are some indications (such as at
Some scholars have suggested that the earliest manifestation of the Kura-Araxes phenomenon should be dated at least to the last quarter of the 5th millennium BC. This is based on the recent data from Ovçular Tepesi, a Late Chalcolithic settlement located in Nakhchivan by the Arpaçay river.[11]
Expansion
Rather quickly, elements of Kura–Araxes culture started to proceed westward to the
Its territory corresponds to large parts of modern
At
At
According to Geoffrey Summers, the movement of Kura-Araxes peoples into Iran and the Van region, which he interprets as quite sudden, started shortly before 3000 BC, and may have been prompted by the 'Late Uruk Collapse' (end of the Uruk period), taking place at the end of Uruk IV phase c. 3100 BC.[16]
Iranian sites
There are many important Kura-Araxes sites located along the Araxes river, south of which is modern Iran.
Also in Iran downstream the Araxes river, two additional sites from the same period have recently been excavated,
Many other Iranian sites have come to light recently and have been excavated already.[20]
Cultural connections
Kura–Araxes culture is closely linked to the approximately contemporaneous Maykop culture of the North Caucasus. The two cultures seem to have influenced one another.[22][23]
Economy
The economy was based on
Before the Kura-Araxes period, horse bones were not found in Transcaucasia. Later, beginning about 3300 BCE, they became widespread, with signs of domestication.[25]
There is evidence of trade with Mesopotamia as well as
Settlements
Archaeological evidence of inhabitants of the Kura–Araxes culture showed that ancient settlements were found along the
At some point the culture's settlements and burial grounds expanded out of lowland river valleys and into highland areas.[27] Although some scholars have suggested that this expansion demonstrates a switch from agriculture to pastoralism and that it serves as possible proof of a large-scale arrival of Indo-Europeans, facts such as that settlement in the lowlands remained more or less continuous suggest merely that the people of this culture were diversifying their economy to encompass crop and livestock agriculture.[27]
. It was inhabited from approximately 3200 BC cal to 2500 BC cal. Later on, in the Middle Bronze Age, it was used irregularly until 2200 BC cal. The town occupied an area of six hectares, which is large for Kura-Araxes sites.Metallurgy
In the earliest phase of the Kura–Araxes culture, metal was scarce. In comparison, the preceding
The Kura–Araxes culture would later display "a precocious metallurgical development, which strongly influenced surrounding regions".[30] They worked copper, arsenic, silver, gold,[3] tin, and bronze.[27]
Their metal goods were widely distributed, from the
in the west.Pottery
Their pottery was distinctive. The spread of their pottery along trade routes into surrounding cultures was much more impressive than any of their achievements domestically.[3] It was painted black and red, using geometric designs. Examples have been found as far south as Syria and Israel, and as far north as Dagestan and Chechnya.[31] The spread of this pottery, along with archaeological evidence of invasions, suggests that the Kura-Araxes people may have spread outward from their original homes and, most certainly, had extensive trade contacts. Jaimoukha believes that its southern expanse is attributable primarily to Mitanni and the Hurrians.[24]
According to Giulio Palumbi (2008), the typical red-black ware of Kura–Araxes culture originated in eastern Anatolia, and then moved on to the Caucasus area. But then these cultural influences came back to Anatolia mixed in with other cultural elements from the Caucasus.[32]
Viticulture
The earliest evidence of domesticated grapes in the world has been found at Gadachrili Gora, near the village of Imiri, Marneuli Municipality, in southeastern Republic of Georgia; carbon-dating points to the date of about 6000 BC.[34][35]
Grape pips dating back to the V-IVth millennia BC were found in Shulaveri; others dating back to the IVth millennium BC were found in Khizanaant Gora—all in this same 'Shulaveri area' of the Republic of Georgia.[36]
A theory has been suggested by Stephen Batiuk that the Kura-Araxes folk may have spread Vitis vinifera vine and wine technology to the "Fertile Crescent"—to Mesopotamia and the Eastern Mediterranean.[37] The spread of the wine-goblet form, such as represented by the Khirbet Kerak ware, is clearly associated with these peoples. The same applies to the large ceramic vessels used for grape fermentation.
Burial customs
Analyzing the situation in the Kura-Araxes period, T. A. Akhundov notes the lack of unity in funerary monuments, which he considers more than strange in the framework of a single culture; for the funeral rites reflect the deep culture-forming foundations and are weakly influenced by external customs. There are non-kurgan and kurgan burials, burials in ground pits, in stone boxes and crypts, in the underlying ground strata and on top of them; using both the round and rectangular burials; there are also substantial differences in the typical corpse position.[39] Burial complexes of Kura–Araxes culture sometimes also include cremation.[40]
Here one can come to the conclusion that the Kura–Araxes culture developed gradually through a synthesis of several cultural traditions, including the ancient cultures of the Caucasus and nearby territories.
Late Kura-Araxes sites often featured Kurgans of greatly varying sizes, with larger, wealthier kurgans surrounded by smaller kurgans containing less wealth. These kurgans also contained a wide assortment metalworks.[2] This trend suggests the eventual emergence of a marked social hierarchy.[2] Their practice of storing relatively great wealth in burial kurgans was probably a cultural influence from the more ancient civilizations of the Fertile Crescent to the south.[2]
In the 3rd millennium B.C., one particular group of mounds of the Kura–Araxes culture is remarkable for their wealth. This was the final stage of culture's development. These burial mounds are known as the Martqopi (or Martkopi) period mounds. Those on the left bank of the river Alazani are often 20–25 meters high and 200–300 meters in diameter. They contain especially rich artefacts, such as gold and silver jewelry.[41]
Ethno-linguistic makeup
While it is unknown what languages were present in Kura-Araxes, the two most widespread theories suggest a connection with Hurro-Urartian[42][43][44][45] and/or Anatolian languages.[46][47][48][49][50] The Kartvelian[51] and Northeast Caucasian languages[52] were likely spoken in the region as well.
See also
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History of Georgia |
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History of Armenia |
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Timeline • Origins • Etymology |
History of Iran | |
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3200–2700 | |
Jiroft culture | c. 3100–2200 |
Lullubi Kingdom/Zamua | c. 3100-675 |
Elam | 2700–539 |
Marhaši | c. 2550-2020 |
Oxus Civilization | c. 2400–1700 |
Akkadian Empire | 2400–2150 |
Kassites | c. 1500 –1155 |
Avestan period | c. 1500 –500 |
Neo-Assyrian Empire | 911–609 |
Urartu | 860–590 |
Mannaea | 850–616 |
Zikirti | 750-521 |
Saparda | 720-670 |