Kurdistan Region
Kurdistan Region
| |
---|---|
Coat of arms | |
Anthem: ئەی ڕەقیب Ey Reqîb "Oh, enemy!" | |
autonomous region | |
Nechirvan Barzani | |
Masrour Barzani | |
• Deputy Prime Minister | Qubad Talabani |
Legislature | AST) |
Date format | dd/mm/yyyy |
Driving side | right |
Calling code | +964 |
ISO 3166 code | |
Internet TLD | .krd |
Kurdistan Region (KRI;
Throughout the 20th century, Iraqi Kurds oscillated between fighting for autonomy and for full independence. Under the Ba'athist regime, the Kurds experienced Arabization and genocidal campaigns at the hands of the federal government in Baghdad.[19] However, when the United States, the United Kingdom, and France established the Iraqi no-fly zones, which restricted the federal government's power in the country's northern and southern areas following the Gulf War, the Kurds were given a chance to experiment with self-governance and the autonomous region was de facto established.[20] The Iraqi government only recognized the autonomy of the Kurdistan Region in 2005, after the American-led 2003 invasion of Iraq overthrew Saddam Hussein.[21] In September 2017, the KRI passed a non-binding independence referendum, inviting mixed reactions internationally. The KRI largely escaped the privations that afflicted other parts of Iraq in the last years of Saddam Hussein's rule as well as the chaos that followed his ousting during the Iraq War (2003–2011), and built a parliamentary democracy with a growing economy.[22]
History
Early struggle for autonomy (1923–1975)
Before Iraq became an independent state in 1923, the
From 1961 to 1970, the Kurds fought the Iraqi government in the First Iraqi–Kurdish War, which resulted in the Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement. But simultaneously with its promise of Kurdish autonomy, the Iraqi government began ethnic cleansing Kurdish-populated areas, to reduce the size of the autonomous entity which a census would determine.[19] This mistrust provoked the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War between 1974 and 1975, which resulted in a serious defeat for the Iraqi Kurds (see Algiers Accord) and forced all of the rebels to flee once more to Iran.
Insurgency and first elections (1975–1992)
The more left-leaning Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) was founded in 1975 by Jalal Talabani and regenerated the Kurdish insurgency with guerrilla warfare tactics as the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) was slowly recovering from their defeat. However, the Kurdish insurgency became entangled in the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 onwards. During the first years of the war in the early 1980s, the Iraqi government tried to accommodate the Kurds in order to focus on the war against Iran. In 1983, the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan agreed to cooperate with Baghdad, but the Kurdistan Democratic Party remained opposed.[30] In 1983, Saddam Hussein signed an autonomy agreement with Jalal Talabani of the PUK, though Saddam later reneged on the agreement.
By 1985, the PUK and KDP had joined forces, and Iraqi Kurdistan saw widespread guerrilla warfare up to the end of the war.
Nascent autonomy, war and political turmoil (1992–2009)
The two parties agreed to form the first Kurdish cabinet led by PUK politician Fuad Masum as Prime Minister in July 1992 and the main focus of the new cabinet was to mitigate the effect of the American-led sanctions on Iraq and to prevent internal Kurdish skirmishes. Nonetheless, the cabinet broke down due to plagues of embattlement and technocracy which disenfranchised the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and a new more partisan cabinet was formed and led by PUK politician Kosrat Rasul Ali in April 1993.[33] The KDP-PUK relations quickly deteriorated and the first clashes in the civil war took place in May 1994 when PUK captured the towns of Shaqlawa and Chamchamal from KDP, which in turn pushed PUK out of Salahaddin (near Erbil). In September 1998, the United States mediated a ceasefire and the two warring parties signed the Washington Agreement deal, where in it was stipulated that the two parties would agree on revenue-sharing, power-sharing and security arrangements.[34]
The anarchy in Kurdistan during the war created an opportunity for the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which created bases in the northern mountainous areas of the Kurdistan Region,[35][36] which still operates in the Region in the 2010s with frequent calls for withdrawal.[37]
In advance of the
In 2009, Kurdistan saw the birth of a new major party, the
ISIL and rapprochement with Iraq (after 2014)
In the period leading up to the
Geography
The Kurdistan region of Iraq is an autonomous region in northern Iraq. It borders Iran in the east, Turkey in the north, and Syria in the west. The region encompasses most of Iraqi Kurdistan, which is the southern part of the greater geographical region of Kurdistan. The region lies between latitudes 34° and 38°N, and longitudes 41° and 47°E. Most of the northern and northeastern parts of the region are mountainous, especially those bordering Turkey and Iran. The region has several high mountains and mountain ranges. Other areas of the region are hills and plains, which make up the central and most southern parts of the region.[46]
Most of the precipitation there falls as rain or snow between November and April, annual precipitation ranges from about 375 to 724 mm. From ancient times this has made cultivation of winter crops (and vegetables and fruit in the summer) and the raising of livestock possible.[47]
Around 1,368,388 hectares (33%) of the land is rainfed arable agricultural land and 328,428 hectares (8%) is Irrigated arable agricultural land.[48]
Climate
The climate of the Kurdistan Region is semi-arid continental; hot and dry in summer, and cold and wet in winter. The region is cooler compared to the central and southern parts of Iraq.[49]
Summers are hot and dry, with high average temperatures ranging from 35 °C (95 °F) in the cooler northernmost areas to blistering 40 °C (104 °F) in the southwest, with lows around 21 °C (70 °F) to 24 °C (75 °F). Winter is dramatically cooler than the rest of Iraq, with highs averaging between 9 °C (48 °F) and 11 °C (52 °F) and with lows hovering around 3 °C (37 °F) in some areas and freezing in others, dipping to −2 °C (28 °F) and 0 °C (32 °F) on average.
Climate data for Erbil | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 20 (68) |
27 (81) |
30 (86) |
34 (93) |
42 (108) |
44 (111) |
48 (118) |
49 (120) |
45 (113) |
39 (102) |
31 (88) |
24 (75) |
49 (120) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 12.4 (54.3) |
14.2 (57.6) |
18.1 (64.6) |
24.0 (75.2) |
31.5 (88.7) |
38.1 (100.6) |
42.0 (107.6) |
41.9 (107.4) |
37.9 (100.2) |
30.7 (87.3) |
21.2 (70.2) |
14.4 (57.9) |
27.2 (81.0) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 7.4 (45.3) |
8.9 (48.0) |
12.4 (54.3) |
17.5 (63.5) |
24.1 (75.4) |
29.7 (85.5) |
33.4 (92.1) |
33.1 (91.6) |
29.0 (84.2) |
22.6 (72.7) |
15.0 (59.0) |
9.1 (48.4) |
20.2 (68.3) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.4 (36.3) |
3.6 (38.5) |
6.7 (44.1) |
11.1 (52.0) |
16.7 (62.1) |
21.4 (70.5) |
24.9 (76.8) |
24.4 (75.9) |
20.1 (68.2) |
14.5 (58.1) |
8.9 (48.0) |
3.9 (39.0) |
13.2 (55.8) |
Record low °C (°F) | −4 (25) |
−6 (21) |
−1 (30) |
3 (37) |
6 (43) |
10 (50) |
13 (55) |
17 (63) |
11 (52) |
4 (39) |
−2 (28) |
−2 (28) |
−6 (21) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 111 (4.4) |
97 (3.8) |
89 (3.5) |
69 (2.7) |
26 (1.0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
12 (0.5) |
56 (2.2) |
80 (3.1) |
540 (21.2) |
Average rainy days | 9 | 9 | 10 | 9 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 10 | 62 |
Average snowy days | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
74.5 | 70 | 65 | 58.5 | 41.5 | 28.5 | 25 | 27.5 | 30.5 | 43.5 | 60.5 | 75.5 | 50.0 |
Source 1: Climate-Data.org,[50] My Forecast for records, humidity, snow and precipitation days[51] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: What's the Weather Like.org,[52] Erbilia[53] |
Biodiversity
Vegetation in the region includes
Animals found in the region include the
Bird species include, the see-see partridge, Menetries's warbler, western jackdaw, Red-billed chough, hooded crow, European nightjar, rufous-tailed scrub robin, masked shrike and the pale rockfinch.[57][58]
Government and politics
The Kurdistan Region is a
The
The Kurdistan region of Iraq enjoys more stability, economic development, and political pluralism than the rest of the country. And public opinion under the Kurdistan Regional Government demands rule-of-law-based governance. But power is concentrated in the hands of the ruling parties and families, who perpetuate a nondemocratic, sultanistic system. These dynamics could foster instability in Kurdistan and its neighborhood, but could also provide a rare window of opportunity for democratization.
Disputed areas
The Committee for implementing article 140 defines the disputed territories as those areas Arabised and whose border modified between 17 July 1968 and 9 April 2003. Those areas include parts of four governorates of pre-1968 borders.[62]
Disputed internal Kurdish–Iraqi boundaries have been a core concern for Arabs and Kurds, especially since US invasion and political restructuring in 2003. Kurds gained territory to the south of Iraqi Kurdistan after the US-led invasion in 2003 to regain what land they considered historically theirs.[63]
Foreign relations
Despite being landlocked, the Kurdistan Region pursues a proactive foreign policy, which includes strengthening diplomatic relations with Iran, Russia, United States and Turkey. Twenty nine countries have a diplomatic presence in the Kurdistan Region, while the Kurdistan Region has representative offices in 14 countries.[64]
Administrative divisions
The Kurdistan Region is divided into four governorates (Kurdish: پارێزگا, Parêzga): the governorates of Erbil, Sulaymaniyah, Duhok, and Halabja. Each of these governorates is divided into districts, for a total of 26 districts. Each district is also divided into sub-districts. Each governorate has a capital city, while districts and sub-districts have 'district centers'.[65]
Governorate | Population (2020) |
Area (km2) |
Area (mi2) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Erbil | هەولێر | 2,932,800 | 14,873 | 5,743 |
Sulaymaniyah | سلێمانی | 2,250,000 | 20,144 | 7,778 |
Duhok | دهۆک | 1,292,535 | 10,956 | 4,230 |
Halabja | هەڵەبجە | 109,000 | 889 | 343 |
Total | 6,584,335 | 46,862 | 18,094 |
Economy
The Kurdistan Region has the lowest poverty rates in Iraq[67] and the stronger economy of the Kurdistan Region attracted around 20,000 workers from other parts of Iraq between 2003 and 2005.[68] The number of millionaires in the city of Sulaymaniyah grew from 12 to 2,000 in 2003, reflecting the economic growth.[69] According to some estimates, the debt of the Kurdish government reached $18 billion by January 2016.[70]
The economy of Kurdistan is dominated by the
Petroleum and mineral resources
In November 2011, Exxon challenged the Iraqi central government's authority with the signing of oil and gas contracts for exploration rights to six parcels of land in Kurdistan, including one contract in the disputed territories, just east of the Kirkuk mega-field.[77] This act caused Baghdad to threaten to revoke Exxon's contract in its southern fields, most notably the West-Qurna Phase 1 project.[78] Exxon responded by announcing its intention to leave the West-Qurna project.[79]
As of July 2007, the Kurdish government solicited foreign companies to invest in 40 new oil sites, with the hope of increasing regional oil production over the following 5 years by a factor of five, to about 1 million barrels per day (160,000 m3/d).
Other mineral resources that exist in significant quantities in the region include coal, copper, gold, iron, limestone (which is used to produce cement), marble, and zinc. The world's largest deposit of rock sulfur is located just southwest of Erbil.[82]
In July 2012, Turkey and the Kurdistan Regional Government signed an agreement by which Turkey will supply the KRG with refined petroleum products in exchange for crude oil. Crude deliveries are expected to occur on a regular basis.[83]
Demographics
Due to the lack of a proper census, the exact population and demographics of Kurdistan Region are unknown, but the government has started to publish more detailed figures. The population of the region is notoriously difficult to ascertain, as the Iraqi government has historically sought to minimize the importance of the Kurdish minority while Kurdish groups have had a tendency to exaggerate the numbers.[84] Based on available data, Kurdistan has a young population with an estimated 36% of the population being under the age of 15.[85]
Ethnic data (1917–1947)
Ethnic group |
British data 1917 | British data 1921 | British data 1930 | British data 1947 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
Kurds | 401,000 | 54.4% | 454,720 | 57.9% | 393,000 | 55% | 804,240 | 63.1% |
Arabs | – | – | 185,763 | 23.6% | – | – | – | – |
Turkmens | – | – | 65,895 | 8.4% | – | – | – | – |
Assyrians, Armenians | – | – | 62,225 | 7.9% | – | – | – | – |
Jews | – | – | 16,865 | 2.1% | – | – | – | – |
Other, unknown, not stated | 336,026 | 45.6% | – | – | 321,430 | 45% | 470,050 | 36.9% |
Total | 737,026 | 785,468 | 714,430 | 1,274,290 |
Religion
Kurdistan has a religiously diverse population. The dominant religion is
In 2015, the Kurdistan Regional Government enacted a law to formally protect religious minorities. Christianity is professed by Assyrians and Armenians.
A tiny ethno-religious community of Mandaeans also exists within the semi-autonomous region. The National Association of Jews from Kurdistan in Israel stated there is a small number of expatriate Jews in the Kurdistan Region, but no Jews remaining from original Jewish communities.[91][92]
-
Mudhafaria Minaret in the Minare Park, Erbil
-
Chaldean Catholic Mar Yousif Cathedral in Ankawa
Immigration
Widespread economic activity between the Kurdistan Region and Turkey has given the opportunity for Kurds in Turkey to seek jobs in the Kurdistan Region. A Kurdish newspaper based in the Kurdish capital estimates that around 50,000 Kurds from Turkey are now living in the Kurdistan Region.[93]
Refugees
The Kurdistan Region is hosting 1.2 million displaced Iraqis who have been displaced by the ISIS war, as of early December 2017. There were about 335,000 in the area prior to 2014 with the rest arriving in 2014 as a result of unrest in Syria and attacks by the
Education
Before the establishment of the Kurdistan Regional Government, primary and secondary education was almost entirely taught in Arabic. Higher education was always taught in Arabic. This however changed with the establishment of the Kurdistan Autonomous Region. The first international school, the International School of Choueifat opened its branch in the Kurdistan Region in 2006. Other international schools have opened and British International Schools in Kurdistan is the latest with a planned opening in Suleimaniah in September 2011.
The Kurdistan Region's official universities are listed below, followed by their English acronym (if commonly used), internet domain, establishment date and latest data about the number of students.
Institute | Internet domain | Established | Students |
---|---|---|---|
University of Sulaimani (UOS)
|
univsul.edu.iq | 1968 | 25,900 (2013) |
Salahaddin University (SU)
|
www.su.edu.krd | 1970 | 20,000 (2013) |
University of Duhok | www.uod.ac | 1992 | 19,615 (2017)[95] |
University of Zakho | www.uoz.edu.krd | 2010 | 2,600 (2011)[96] |
University of Koya (KU)
|
www.koyauniversity.org | 2003 | 4260 (2014) |
University of Kurdistan Hewler (UKH) | www.ukh.edu.krd | 2006 | 400 (2006) |
The American University of Iraq – Sulaimani (AUIS)
|
www.auis.edu.krd | 2007 | 1100 (2014) |
American University Duhok Kurdistan (AUDK)
|
www.audk.edu.krd | 2014 | |
Hawler Medical University (HMU) | www.hmu.edu.krd | 2006 | (3400) (2018) |
Business & Management University (BMU)
|
www.lfu.edu.krd/index.php | 2007 | |
Lebanese French University | www.lfu.edu.krd | 2007 | 2,600 (2022) |
Cihan University
|
www.cihanuniversity.edu.iq | 2007 | |
Komar University of Science and Technology (KUST) | www.komar.edu.iq | 2012 | |
Ishik University (IU)
|
www.ishik.edu.krd Archived 2018-08-09 at the Wayback Machine | 2008 | 1,700 (2012) |
Soran University | www.soran.edu.iq | 2009 | 2200 (2011) |
Nawroz University | web.nawroz.edu.krd/ | 2004 | |
University of Human Development (UHD/Qaradax) | www.uhd.edu.iq Archived 2017-03-08 at the Wayback Machine | 2008 | |
Sulaimani Polytechnic University (SPU) | www.http://spu.edu.iq | 1996 | 13000 (2013) |
Knowledge University (KNU) | knu.edu.iq | 2009 | 2800 (2021) |
Catholic University in Erbil (CUE) | cue.edu.krd | 2015 | 271 (2022) |
Human resources
Iraqi Kurdistan has been investing in the growth of its human capital in general.[97] Public sector employees are often enrolled in local training programmes or sent overseas to participate in training courses, technical classes, and professional development programmes.[98] However, factors such as the lack of a practical and formal HRD framework specific to the KRG's public sector, the absence of evaluation process, inadequate civil service training institutions, and corruption have hampered effective and efficient professional development and training in the public sector.[98] Therefore, an assessment of such programmes and their outcomes is needed to identify any misuse of public funds, as well as to assist in the reducing of administrative and political corruption and to make policy recommendations. The government's policies for the public sector have also had an impact on the private sector. However, the government has played a much smaller role in the private sector.[99] In Iraqi Kurdistan, the Ministry of Planning has primarily concentrated on activating training in the public sector, with the goal of expanding opportunities and improving the efficiency of the training process.[98] In the long run, this will have an effect on private sector training and growth.
Human rights
In 2010 Human Rights Watch reported that journalists in the Kurdistan Region who criticize the regional government have faced substantial violence, threats, and lawsuits, and some have fled the country.[100] Some journalists faced trial and threats of imprisonment for their reports about corruption in the region.[100]
In 2009 Human Rights Watch found that some health providers in Iraqi Kurdistan had been involved in both performing and promoting misinformation about the practice of female genital mutilation. Girls and women receive conflicting and inaccurate messages from media campaigns and medical personnel on its consequences.[101] The Kurdistan parliament in 2008 passed a draft law outlawing the practice, but the ministerial decree necessary to implement it, expected in February 2009, was cancelled.[102] As reported to the Centre for Islamic Pluralism by the non-governmental organization, called as Stop FGM in Kurdistan, the Kurdistan Regional Government in northern Iraq, on 25 November, officially admitted the wide prevalence in the territory of female genital mutilation (FGM). Recognition by the KRG of the frequency of this custom among Kurds came during a conference program commemorating the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women.[103] On 27 November 2010, the Kurdish government officially admitted to violence against women in Kurdistan and began taking serious measures.[104] 21 June 2011 The Family Violence Bill was approved by the Kurdistan Parliament, it includes several provisions criminalizing the practice.[105] A 2011 Kurdish law criminalized FGM practice in Iraqi Kurdistan and law was accepted four years later.[106][107][108] The studies have shown that there is a trend of general decline of FGM.[109]
British lawmaker Robert Halfon sees the Kurdistan Region as a more progressive Muslim region than the other Muslim countries in the Middle East.[110]
Although the Kurdish regional parliament has officially recognized ethnic minorities such as Assyrians, Turkmen, Arabs, Armenians, Mandaeans, Shabaks and Yazidis, there have been accusations of Kurdish discrimination against those groups. The Assyrians have reported Kurdish officials' reluctance in rebuilding Assyrian villages in their region while constructing more settlements for the Kurds affected during the Anfal campaign.[111] After his visit to the region, Dutch politician Joël Voordewind noted that the positions reserved for minorities in the Kurdish parliament were appointed by Kurds as the Assyrians for example had no possibility to nominate their own candidates.[112]
The Kurdish regional government has also been accused of trying to
While Kurdish forces held the city of Kirkuk, Kurdish authorities attempted to Kurdify the city. Turkmen and Arab residents in Kirkuk experienced intimidation, harassment and were forced to leave their homes, in order to increase the Kurdish demographic in Kirkuk and bolster their claims to the city. Multiple Human Rights Watch reports detail the confiscation of Turkmen and Arab families' documents, preventing them from voting, buying property and travelling. Turkmen residents of Kirkuk were detained by Kurdish forces and compelled to leave the city. Kurdish authorities expelled hundreds of Arab families from the city, demolishing their homes in the process.[115][116][117]
United Nations reports since 2006 have documented that Kurdish authorities and Peshmerga militia forces were illegally policing Kirkuk and other disputed areas, and that these militia have abducted Turkmen and Arabs, subjecting them to torture.[118]
In April 2016,
In February 2017, Human Rights Watch said
In 2017, Assyrian activists Juliana Taimoorazy and Matthew Joseph accused the Kurdistan Regional Government of issuing threats of violence against Assyrians living in the area who protested its independence referendum. These accusations were later confirmed when the KDP-controlled provincial council of Alqosh issued a statement warning residents that they would face consequences for protesting the referendum.[122]
In 2010, it was reported that passing of a new law in Iraqi Kurdistan, guaranteeing “gender equality”, has deeply outraged some local religious community, including the minister of endowments and religious affairs and prominent imams, who interpreted the phrase as "legitimizing homosexuality in Kurdistan".[123] Kamil Haji Ali, the minister of endowments and religious affairs, said in this regard that the new law would “spread immorality” and “distort” Kurdish society.[123] Following an outrage of religious movements, the KRG held a press conference, where the public were ensured that gender equality did not include giving marriage rights to homosexuals, whose existence is effectively invisible in Iraq due to restrictive traditional rules.[123]
In the disputed areas of Sinjar and the Nineveh Plains, the Kurdistan Regional Government has been accused by the native Assyrian[124] and Yazidi[125][126] inhabitants of forcefully disarming them with the guarantee of protection in order to justify the Peshmerga’s presence in those regions.[125] In 2014, when the Islamic State invaded Northern Iraq, the Peshmerga abandoned their posts in these areas without notifying the locals.[126]
Infrastructure and transportation
Infrastructure
Due to the devastation of the campaigns of the Iraqi army under Saddam Hussein and other former Iraqi regimes, the Kurdistan Region's infrastructure was never able to modernize. After the 1991 safe haven was established, the Kurdistan Regional Government began projects to reconstruct the Kurdistan Region. Since then, of all the 4,500 villages that were destroyed by Saddam Husseins' regime, 65% have been reconstructed by the KRG.[127]
Transportation
Iraqi Kurdistan can be reached by land and air. By land, Iraqi Kurdistan can be reached most easily by Turkey through the
Iraqi Kurdistan has opened its doors to the world by opening two international airports.
Culture and Society
Languages
Kurdistan Region is a multilingual region with several languages and dialects. The majority of the people speak
See also
Notes
- ^ The written language of the Iraqi Turkmen is based on Istanbul Turkish using the modern Turkish alphabet.[3]
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