Kurds in Turkey
Kurdish • Turkish | |
Religion | |
---|---|
Predominantly Sunni Islam, minority Alevism and Yazidism | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Zazas and other Iranian peoples |
The
During the violent suppressions of numerous Kurdish rebellions since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, such as the
Since the 1980s, Kurdish movements have included both peaceful political activities for basic civil rights for Kurds in Turkey as well as armed rebellion and guerrilla warfare, including military attacks aimed mainly at Turkish military bases, demanding first a separate Kurdish state and later self-determination for the Kurds.[15] According to a state-sponsored Turkish opinion poll, 59% of self-identified Kurds in Turkey think that Kurds in Turkey do not seek a separate state (while 71.3% of self-identified Turks think they do).[16]
During the
History
Middle Ages
The
According to Ahmet Nezihî Turan the first Kurdish settlement in Central Anatolia was named Kürtler ("Kurds"), founded in Yaban Âbâd (present-day Kızılcahamam-Çamlıdere near Ankara) in 1463.[25][page needed] According to Mark Sykes, the earliest population transfer (or exile) of Kurds to Central Anatolia was carried out during the reign of Selim I (1512–20).[26]
Early modern period
The Mahmudi or "Pinyanişi" was an Ottoman-Kurdish tribe in the Lake Van region, who according to Evliya Çelebi had 60,000 warriors.[27] Their chief, Sarı Süleyman Bey,[28] strengthened the Hoşap Castle[29] in the Lake Van region, in 1643.[30]
19th century
After ca. 1800, the Cihanbeyli, Reşwan and Şêxbizin tribes migrated into central Anatolia from the east and southeast.[31] The total Kurdish population in Turkey was estimated at 1.5 million in the 1880s, many of whom were nomadic or pastoral.[32]
20th century
Before the foundation of Turkey, the Kurds were recognized as an own Nation of themselves.
Referring to the main policy document in this context, the
After the 1960 coup, the State Planning Organization (Turkish: Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, DPT) was established under the Prime Ministry to solve the problem of Kurdish separatism and underdevelopment. In 1961, the DPT prepared a report titled "The principles of the state's development plan for the east and southeast" (Turkish: Devletin Doğu ve Güneydoğu'da uygulayacağı kalkınma programının esasları), shortened to "Eastern Report". It proposed to defuse separatism by encouraging ethnic mixing through migration (to and from the Southeast). This was not unlike the policies pursued by the Committee of Union and Progress under the Ottoman Empire. The Minister of Labor of the time, Bülent Ecevit of partial Kurdish ancestry,[45][46] was critical of the report.[47] From the establishment of the Inspectorate Generals until 1965, South East Turkey, was a forbidden area for foreigners.[38]
During the 1970s, the separatist movement coalesced into the Kurdish–Turkish conflict. From 1984 to 1999, the Turkish military was embroiled in a conflict with the PKK. The village guard system was set up and armed by the Turkish state around 1984 to combat the PKK. The militia comprises local Kurds and it has around 58,000 members. Some of the village guards are fiercely loyal to the Turkish state, leading to infighting among Kurdish militants.[48]
Due to the clashes between Turkish Army and the PKK the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, with Kurdish civilians moving to local defensible centers such as
"Evacuations were unlawful and violent. Security forces would surround a village using helicopters, armored vehicles, troops, and village guards, and burn stored produce, agricultural equipment, crops, orchards, forests, and livestock. They set fire to houses, often giving the inhabitants no opportunity to retrieve their possessions. During the course of such operations, security forces frequently abused and humiliated villagers, stole their property and cash, and ill-treated or tortured them before herding them onto the roads and away from their former homes. The operations were marked by scores of "disappearances" and extrajudicial executions. By the mid-1990s, more than 3,000 villages had been virtually wiped from the map, and, according to official figures, 378,335 Kurdish villagers had been displaced and left homeless."[51]
21st century
In 2009, under the lead of Interior Minister
Following Turkey's electoral board decision to bar prominent Kurdish candidates who had allegedly outstanding warrants or were part of ongoing investigations for PKK-links from standing in upcoming elections,
On the eve of the 2012 year (28 December), the prime minister of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, said that the government was conducting negotiations with jailed rebel leader Öcalan.[57] On 21 March 2013, after months of negotiations with the Turkish Government, Abdullah Ocalan's letter to people was read both in Turkish and Kurdish during Nowruz celebrations in Diyarbakır. The letter called a cease-fire that included disarmament and withdrawal from Turkish soil and calling an end to armed struggle. The PKK announced that they would obey, stating that the year of 2013 is the year of solution either through war or through peace. On 25 April 2013, the PKK announced that it would be withdrawing all its forces within Turkey to northern Iraq.[58]
On 6 and 7 October 2014, riots erupted in various cities in Turkey for protesting the
Politics
Kurdish politicians participate in Turkey's
There are also political parties that supports
Political parties
Parties in Turkey with high emphasis on
Public opinion
According to a 2020 poll conducted by Kadir Has University 17.3% of the surveyed people who identify as Kurdish answered the question "Which form of polity do Kurdish people want?" as "an independent Kurdish state". Around 25% of the non-Kurdish participants gave the same answer to the question. Roughly 33% of the Kurdish participants answered "more democratic Turkey", meanwhile those who responded "autonomy" composed 24.5% of the surveyed.[78][79]
12.3% of those surveyed find the government policies concerning Kurdish issues "definitely successful", while those who said "definitely unsuccessful" were 11.7 percent. 31.5 percent of the respondents stated that the "main element connecting the Kurds and the Turks" was Islam, 24% stated that they shared a common history, and the rate of those who said "democratic society" was 4.5 percent. To the question "How do you evaluate the dismissal of some provincial and district mayorships and the appointment of trustees by proxy after the 31 March local elections?" 26.5 percent of the participants answered the question as positive and 38.2 percent as negative.[79]
Kurdish rebellions
- Koçkiri Rebellion(1920)
- Sheikh Said rebellion (1925)
- Ararat rebellion (1927–30)
- Dersim Rebellion (1937–1938)
- Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present)
According to human rights organisations, since the beginning of the ongoing
Culture
Music
Between 1982 and 1991, the performance or recording of songs in the Kurdish language on television and radio was banned in Turkey, affecting singers such as Şivan Perwer, Mahsun Kırmızıgül and İbrahim Tatlıses. However, a black market sprang up, and pirate radio stations and underground recordings became available.[82]
Şivan Perwer is a composer, vocalist and tembûr player. He concentrates mainly on political and nationalistic music—of which he is considered the founder in Kurdish music—as well as classical and folk music.
Another important Kurdish musician from Turkey is
Literature
Film
In 2011, Kanal D, Turkey's largest television station, began filming Ayrılık Olmasaydı: ben-u sen in majority-Kurdish Diyarbakir. The show, written by a Kurdish screenwriter, professed to be the first in the popular genre to portray the Kurds in a positive light. The show was set to debut in early 2012, but suffered numerous delays, some say because of the controversial subject.[89]
Demographics
Year | Total Kurdish speakers[90] | % | Note |
---|---|---|---|
1927 | 1,184,446 | 8.7% | L1: 1,184,446 No numbers on L2 |
1935 | 1,594,702 | 9.9% | L1: 1,480,246 L2: 114,456 |
1945 | 1,593,692 | 8.5% | L1: 1,476,562 L2: 117,130 |
1950 | 2,069,921 | 9.9% | L1: 1,854,569 L2: 215,352 |
1955 | 1,942,285 | 8.1% | L1: 1,679,265 L2: 263,020 |
1960 | 2,317,132 | 8.3% | L1: 1,847,674 L2: 469,458 |
1965 | 2,817,313 | 9% | L1: 2,370,233 L2: 447,080 |
1970 | 3,225,795 | 9.1% | data published by major newspapers |
The majority of Kurds live in Turkey.[91] Estimations on the Kurdish population in Turkey varies considerably according to sources. A professor of political science, Michael Gunter wrote that Kurdish sources tend to exaggerate numbers, while the states that Kurds live in often undercount the Kurdish population.[92]
Their numbers are estimated at 14,000,000 people by the CIA world factbook (18% of population).[91] A report commissioned by the National Security Council (Turkey) in 2000 puts the number at 12,600,000 people, or 15.7% of the population.[4] One Western source estimates that up to 25% of the Turkish population is Kurdish (approximately 18-19 million people).[5] Kurdish nationalists put the figure at 20,000,000[93] to 25,000,000.[94] All of the above figures are for the number of people who identify as Kurds, not the number who speak a Kurdish language, but include both Kurds and Zazas.[95] Estimates based on native languages place the Kurdish population at 6% to 23%; Ibrahim Sirkeci claims the closest figure should be above 17.8%, taking into account political context and the potential biases in responses recorded in surveys and censuses.[96] The population growth rate of Kurds in the 1970s was given as 3.27%.[97] According to two studies (2006 and 2008) study by KONDA, people who self-identify as Kurdish or Zaza and/or speaks Kurmanji or Zazaki as a mother tongue correspond to 13.4% of the population. Based on higher birth rates among Kurdish people, and using 2000 Census results, KONDA suggested that this figure rises to 15.7% when children are included, at the end of 2007.[98]
Since the immigration to the big cities in the west of Turkey, interethnic marriage has become more common. A 2013 study estimates that there are 2,708,000 marriages between Turks and Kurds/Zaza.[99]
Turkish government statistics show that Kurdish women in Turkey give birth to about four children, more than double the rate for the rest of the Turkish population. The Kurdish population is growing, while the rest of the country has birth rates below replacement level.[101][102] In some Kurdish dominated provinces women give birth to 7.1 children on average.[103] Women in Kurdish dominated provinces of eastern Turkey also have an illiteracy rate about three times higher than men, which correlates with higher birth rates. In 2000 66% of 15-year-old girls from Şırnak Province could not read or write.[103][needs update]
Language
The majority of people who identify as Kurds speak
Around 75% of the Kurds stated that they either had "very good" or "good" proficiency in their respective mother languages. 55% of those who had "very good" or "good" proficiency in their mother language stated that their children were also proficient. Around 75% of the Kurds and 2% of the Zazas (58.4% for Zazaki) declared that they spoke Kurdish at home. Turkish was spoken by 22.4% and 38.3% at home, respectively. Turkish (70%) was the dominant household language for Alevi population.[104]
Religion
Most of the Kurdish people living in Turkey are
Kurds and Zazas in Eastern Turkey are found to be more religious compared to both general population of Turkey and the Turkish population in the same region. Religious observance rates such as
Tribes
33.4% of the Kurds and 21.2% of the Zaza from Eastern Turkey declared that they had tribal affiliations (Kurdish: eşîr, Turkish: aşiret), compared to c. 3% of the Turks in the same region. Tribal affiliation was highest (73%) among the people who declared that they were Alevis. 18.5% of those who were a member of a tribe stated that their tribe was an important factor for their political decisions. Around 10% of the surveyed tribal members claimed it was economically important to be in a tribe.[104]
Central Anatolia
The Kurds of Central Anatolia
According to Hermann Wenzel, the original breeders of the Angora goat were the Kurds of Inner Anatolia.[114][115]
The largest tribes of the Kurds of Central Anatolia are the Bazaini or Shaikh Bazaini, Judikan, Saifkan, Chelebi, Janbeki, Jehanbegli, Khallikan, Mutikan, Hajibani, Barakati, Badeli, Ukhchizhemi, Rashvan, Sherdi, Urukchi, Milan, Zirikan, Atmanikan, and Tirikan. Formerly, some of the Janbegli, Rashvan and Milan tribes were of
Two or the four primary dialects of Kurdish are used by the Central Anatolian Kurds. These are
Human rights
Since the 1970s, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has condemned Turkey for thousands of human rights abuses.[119][120] The judgments are related to executions of Kurdish civilians,[121] torturing,[122] forced displacements,[123] destroyed villages,[124] arbitrary arrests,[125] murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists.[126] To cite a recent case, in 2018 and 2020, the ECHR ruled that the arrest and ongoing imprisonment of Selahattin Demirtaş was contrary to five articles in the European Convention on Human Rights and had the "ulterior purpose of stifling pluralism and limiting freedom of political debate"[127][128] and ordered Turkey to pay him 25,000 Euros in compensation.[129] Turkey refused to release him.[130]
The European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) reports that (as of April 2010): "The public use by officials of the Kurdish language lays them open to prosecution, and public defence by individuals of Kurdish or minority interests also frequently leads to prosecutions under the Criminal Code."[131] From the 1994 briefing at the International Human Rights Law Group: "the problem in Turkey is the Constitution is against the Kurds and the apartheid constitution is very similar to it."[132]
In 1998
See also
- Kurds of Khorasan
- Minorities in Turkey
- Human rights in Turkey
- List of Kurdish people
- Turkification
- A Modern History of the Kurds by David McDowall
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Further reading
- Michael M. Gunter (2009). The A to Z of the Kurds. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6334-7.
- Michael M. Gunter (2018). Historical Dictionary of the Kurds. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-5381-1050-8.
- Hakan Ozoglu (2012). Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-8556-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8156-3084-5.
- Ferhad Ibrahim (2000). The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Obstacles and Chances for Peace and Democracy. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-8258-4744-9.
- Lois Whitman; Helsinki Watch (Organization : U.S.) (1 January 1993). The Kurds of Turkey: Killings, Disappearances and Torture. Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1-56432-096-4.
- Metin Heper (2007). The State and Kurds in Turkey: The Question of Assimilation. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-64628-1.
- Michael M. Gunter (1990). The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-8120-6.
- Henri J. Barkey (1 January 2000). Turkey's Kurdish Question. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-585-17773-1.
- Nicole F. Watts (8 November 2010). Activists in Office: Kurdish Politics and Protest in Turkey. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-99050-7.
- Stavroula Chrisdoulaki (1 December 2010). The Kurdish Issue in Turkey. GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3-640-76659-8.
- Bîrnebûn
- Veger
- Kurdên Kirşehîrê Archived 14 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine (Kurdish / Turkish)
- Asemblee Parlementaire, Documents De Seance: Session Ordinaire D'octobre 2006
External links
- Martin van Bruinessen. "The Ethnic Identity of the Kurds in Turkey". Academia.