Median lethal dose

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
LD50
)

In

dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration. LD50 figures are frequently used as a general indicator of a substance's acute toxicity
. A lower LD50 is indicative of higher toxicity.

The test was created by J. W. Trevan in 1927.

Botox without animal tests.[3][4]

Conventions

The LD50 is usually expressed as the mass of substance administered per unit mass of test subject, typically as

) per kilogram. Stating it this way allows the relative toxicity of different substances to be compared and normalizes for the variation in the size of the animals exposed (although toxicity does not always scale simply with body mass). For substances in the environment, such as poisonous vapors or substances in water that are toxic to fish, the concentration in the environment (per cubic metre or per litre) is used, giving a value of LC50. But in this case, the exposure time is important (see below).

The choice of 50% lethality as a benchmark avoids the potential for ambiguity of making measurements in the extremes and reduces the amount of testing required. However, this also means that LD50 is not the lethal dose for all subjects; some may be killed by much less, while others survive doses far higher than the LD50. Measures such as "LD1" and "LD99" (dosage required to kill 1% or 99%, respectively, of the test population) are occasionally used for specific purposes.[5]

Lethal dosage often varies depending on the method of

administration; for instance, many substances are less toxic when administered orally than when intravenously
administered. For this reason, LD50 figures are often qualified with the mode of administration, e.g., "LD50 i.v."

The related quantities LD50/30 or LD50/60 are used to refer to a dose that without treatment will be lethal to 50% of the population within (respectively) 30 or 60 days. These measures are used more commonly within radiation health physics, as survival beyond 60 days usually results in recovery.

A comparable measurement is LCt50, which relates to lethal dosage from exposure, where C is concentration and t is time. It is often expressed in terms of mg-min/m3. ICt50 is the dose that will cause incapacitation rather than death. These measures are commonly used to indicate the comparative efficacy of

Haber's law
, which assumes that exposure to 1 minute of 100 mg/m3 is equivalent to 10 minutes of 10 mg/m3 (1 × 100 = 100, as does 10 × 10 = 100).

Some chemicals, such as

Material Safety Data Sheets
for toxic substances frequently use this form of the term even if the substance does follow Haber's law.

For disease-causing organisms, there is also a measure known as the median infective dose and dosage. The median infective dose (ID50) is the number of organisms received by a person or test animal qualified by the route of administration (e.g., 1,200 org/man per oral). Because of the difficulties in counting actual organisms in a dose, infective doses may be expressed in terms of biological assay, such as the number of LD50s to some test animal. In biological warfare infective dosage is the number of infective doses per cubic metre of air times the number of minutes of exposure (e.g., ICt50 is 100 medium doses - min/m3).

Limitation

As a measure of toxicity, LD50 is somewhat unreliable and results may vary greatly between testing facilities due to factors such as the genetic characteristics of the sample population, animal species tested, environmental factors and mode of administration.[6]

There can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans (

toxic to many animals. When used to test venom from venomous creatures, such as snakes, LD50 results may be misleading due to the physiological differences between mice, rats, and humans. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators on mice, and their venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate mice; and mongooses may be exceptionally resistant. While most mammals
have a very similar physiology, LD50 results may or may not have equal bearing upon every mammal species, such as humans, etc.

Examples

Note: Comparing substances (especially drugs) to each other by LD50 can be misleading in many cases due (in part) to differences in effective dose (ED50). Therefore, it is more useful to compare such substances by therapeutic index, which is simply the ratio of LD50 to ED50.[citation needed]

The following examples are listed in reference to LD50 values, in descending order, and accompanied by LC50 values, {bracketed}, when appropriate.

Substance Animal, route LD50
{LC50}
LD50 : g/kg
{LC50 : g/L}
standardised
Reference
Water (H2O) rat, oral >90,000 mg/kg >90 [7]
Sucrose (table sugar) rat, oral 29,700 mg/kg 29.7 [8]
Corn Syrup
rat, oral 25,800 mg/kg 25.8 [9]
Glucose (blood sugar) rat, oral 25,800 mg/kg 25.8 [10]
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) rat, oral 16,600 mg/kg 16.6 [11]
Stevioside (from stevia) mice and rats, oral 15,000 mg/kg 15 [12]
Gasoline (petrol) rat 14,063 mg/kg 14.0 [13]
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) rat, oral 11,900 mg/kg 11.9 [14]
Glyphosate (isopropylamine salt of) rat, oral 10,537 mg/kg 10.537 [15]
Lactose (milk sugar) rat, oral 10,000 mg/kg 10 [16]
Aspartame mice, oral 10,000 mg/kg 10 [17]
Urea (OC(NH2)2) rat, oral 8,471 mg/kg 8.471 [18]
Cyanuric acid rat, oral 7,700 mg/kg 7.7 [19]
Cadmium sulfide (CdS) rat, oral 7,080 mg/kg 7.08 [20]
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) rat, oral 7,060 mg/kg 7.06 [21]
Sodium isopropyl methylphosphonic acid (IMPA, metabolite of sarin) rat, oral 6,860 mg/kg 6.86 [22]
Melamine rat, oral 6,000 mg/kg 6 [19]
Taurine rat, oral 5,000 mg/kg 5 [23]
Melamine cyanurate rat, oral 4,100 mg/kg 4.1 [19]
Fructose (fruit sugar) rat, oral 4,000 mg/kg 4 [24]
Sodium molybdate (Na2MoO4) rat, oral 4,000 mg/kg 4 [25]
Sodium chloride (table salt) rat, oral 3,000 mg/kg 3 [26]
Paracetamol (acetaminophen) rat, oral 1,944 mg/kg 1.944 [27]
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC)
rat, oral 1,270 mg/kg 1.27 [28]
Cannabidiol (CBD) rat, oral 980 mg/kg 0.98 [29]
Methanol (CH3OH) human, oral 810 mg/kg 0.81 [30]
Arsenic (As) rat, oral 763 mg/kg 0.763 [31]
Ibuprofen rat, oral 636 mg/kg 0.636 [32]
Formaldehyde (CH2O) rat, oral 600–800 mg/kg 0.6 [33]
Solanum tuberosum
)
rat, oral (2.8 mg/kg human, oral) 590 mg/kg 0.590 [34]
Alkyl dimethyl benzalkonium chloride
(ADBAC)
rat, oral
fish, immersion
aquatic invertebrates, immersion
304.5 mg/kg
{0.28 mg/L}
{0.059 mg/L}
0.3045
{0.00028}
{0.000059}
[35]
Cinnamomum aromaticum
and other plants)
rat, oral 293 mg/kg 0.293 [36]
Psilocybin (from magic mushrooms) mouse, oral 280 mg/kg 0.280 [37]
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) rat, oral 238–277 mg/kg 0.238 [38]
Ketamine rat, intraperitoneal 229 mg/kg 0.229 [39]
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) rat, oral 200 mg/kg 0.2 [40]
Caffeine rat, oral 192 mg/kg 0.192 [41]
Arsenic trisulfide (AsS3) rat, oral 185–6,400 mg/kg 0.185–6.4 [42]
Sodium nitrite (NaNO2) rat, oral 180 mg/kg 0.18 [43]
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) rat, oral 160 mg/kg 0.18 [44]
Uranyl acetate dihydrate
(UO2(CH3COO)2)
mouse, oral 136 mg/kg 0.136 [45]
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT)
mouse, oral 135 mg/kg 0.135 [46]
Uranium (U) mice, oral 114 mg/kg (estimated) 0.114 [45]
Bisoprolol mouse, oral 100 mg/kg 0.1 [47]
Cocaine mouse, oral 96 mg/kg 0.096 [48]
Cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2) rat, oral 80 mg/kg 0.08 [49]
Cadmium oxide (CdO) rat, oral 72 mg/kg 0.072 [50]
Thiopental sodium (used in lethal injection
)
rat, oral 64 mg/kg 0.064 [51]
Demeton-S-methyl rat, oral 60 mg/kg 0.060 [52]
Methamphetamine rat, intraperitoneal 57 mg/kg 0.057 [53]
Sodium fluoride (NaF) rat, oral 52 mg/kg 0.052 [54]
Nicotine mouse and rat, oral

human, smoking

50 mg/kg 0.05 [55]
Pentaborane human, oral 50 mg/kg 0.05 [56]
Capsaicin mouse, oral 47.2 mg/kg 0.0472 [57]
Vitamin D3
(cholecalciferol)
rat, oral 37 mg/kg 0.037 [58]
Piperidine (from black pepper) rat, oral 30 mg/kg 0.030 [59]
Heroin (diamorphine) mouse, intravenous 21.8 mg/kg 0.0218 [60]
Lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD)
rat, intravenous 16.5 mg/kg 0.0165 [61]
Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) rat, oral 14 mg/kg 0.014 [62]
Metallic arsenic (As) rat,
intraperitoneal
13 mg/kg 0.013 [63]
Sodium cyanide (NaCN) rat, oral 6.4 mg/kg 0.0064 [64]
Chlorotoxin (CTX, from scorpions) mice 4.3 mg/kg 0.0043 [65]
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) mouse, oral 3.7 mg/kg 0.0037 [66]
Carfentanil rat, intravenous 3.39 mg/kg 0.00339 [67]
Nicotine (from various Solanaceae genera) mice, oral 3.3 mg/kg 0.0033 [55]
White phosphorus
(P)
rat, oral 3.03 mg/kg 0.00303 [68]
Strychnine (from Strychnos nux-vomica) human, oral 1–2 mg/kg (estimated) 0.001–0.002 [69]
Mercury(II) chloride (HgCl2) rat, oral 1 mg/kg 0.001 [70]
Cantharidin (from blister beetles) human, oral 500 μg/kg 0.0005 [71]
Aflatoxin B1 (from Aspergillus flavus mold) rat, oral 480 μg/kg 0.00048 [72]
Plutonium (Pu) dog, intravenous 320 μg/kg 0.00032 [73]
Amatoxin (from Amanita phalloides mushrooms) rat 300-700 μg/kg 0.0007 [74]
Bufotoxin (from Bufo toads) cat, intravenous 300 μg/kg 0.0003 [75]
Brodifacoum rat, oral 270 μg/kg 0.00027 [76]
Caesium-137 (137
Cs
)
mouse, parenteral 21.5 μCi/g 0.000245 [77]
Sodium fluoroacetate (CH2FCOONa) rat, oral 220 μg/kg 0.00022 [78]
Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) mouse, absorption through skin 178 μg/kg 0.000178 [79]
Sarin mouse, subcutaneous injection 172 μg/kg 0.000172 [80]
Robustoxin (from Sydney funnel-web spider
)
mice 150 μg/kg 0.000150 [81]
VX human, oral, inhalation, absorption through skin/eyes 140 μg/kg (estimated) 0.00014 [82]
Venom of the
Brazilian wandering spider
rat, subcutaneous 134 μg/kg 0.000134 [83]
Aconitine (from Aconitum napellus and related species) rat, intraveneous 80 μg/kg 0.000080 [84]
Dimethylmercury (Hg(CH3)2) human, transdermal 50 μg/kg 0.000050 [85]
TBPO (t-Butyl-bicyclophosphate) mouse, intravenous 36 μg/kg 0.000036 [86]
Fentanyl monkey 30 μg/kg 0.00003 [87]
Venom of the
Inland Taipan
(Australian snake)
rat, subcutaneous 25 μg/kg 0.000025 [88]
castor oil plant
)
rat, intraperitoneal
rat, oral
22 μg/kg
20–30 mg/kg
0.000022
0.02
[89]
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD, in Agent Orange) rat, oral 20 μg/kg 0.00002
Tetrodotoxin from the blue-ringed octopus intravenous 8.2 μg/kg 0.0000082 [90]
CrTX-A (from Carybdea rastonii box jellyfish venom) crayfish, intraperitoneal 5 μg/kg 0.000005 [91]
Latrotoxin (from widow spider venom) mice 4.3 μg/kg 0.0000043 [92][self-published source?]
Epipedobates anthonyi
poison dart frog)
mouse, intravenous 1.46-13.98 μg/kg 0.00000146 [93]
Batrachotoxin (from poison dart frog) human, sub-cutaneous injection 2–7 μg/kg (estimated) 0.000002 [94]
rosary pea
)
mice, intravenously

human, inhalation

human, oral

0.7 μg/kg

3.3 μg/kg

10–1000 μg/kg

0.0000007

0.0000033

0.00001–0.001

Saxitoxin (from certain marine dinoflagellates) human, intravenously

human, oral

0.6 μg/kg

5.7 μg/kg

0.0000006

0.0000057

[94]
Pacific
ciguateric fish
)
mice, intraperitoneal 250 ng/kg 0.00000025 [95]
Palytoxin (from Palythoa coral) mouse, intravenous 45 ng/kg

2.3–31.5 μg/kg

0.000000045

0.0000023

[96]
ciguateric fish
)
mouse,
intraperitoneal
50 ng/kg 0.00000005 [97]
Polonium-210 (210
Po
)
human, inhalation 10 ng/kg (estimated) 0.00000001 [98]
Diphtheria toxin (from Corynebacterium) mice 10 ng/kg 0.00000001 [99]
Shiga toxin (from Shigella bacteria) mice 2 ng/kg 0.000000002 [99]
Tetanospasmin (from Clostridium tetani) mice 2 ng/kg 0.000000002 [99]
Botulinum toxin (from Clostridium botulinum) human, oral, injection, inhalation 1 ng/kg (estimated) 0.000000001 [100]
Ionizing radiation human, irradiation Gy (Gray) [101]

Poison scale

decimal logarithm of the median lethal dose LD50 (−log10(LD50)) on a linearized toxicity scale encompassing 11 orders of magnitude. Water occupies the lowest toxicity position (1) while the toxicity scale is dominated by the botulinum toxin (12).[102]

The LD50 values have a very wide range. The

pH value, as a measure for the acidic or basic character of an aqueous solution or of loudness in decibels
. In this case, the negative decimal logarithm of the LD50 values, which is standardized in kg per kg body weight, is considered −log10(LD50).

The dimensionless value found can be entered in a toxin scale. Water as the baseline substance is neatly 1 in the negative logarithmic toxin scale.

Animal rights concerns

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) abolished the requirement for the oral test in 2001 (see Test Guideline 401, Trends in Pharmacological Sciences Vol 22, February 22, 2001).

Procedures

A number of procedures have been defined to derive the LD50. The earliest was the 1927 "conventional" procedure by Trevan, which requires 40 or more animals. The fixed-dose procedure, proposed in 1984, estimates a level of toxicity by feeding at defined doses and looking for signs of toxicity (without requiring death).[104] The up-and-down procedure, proposed in 1985, yields an LD50 value while dosing only one animal at a time.[105][106]

See also

Other measures of toxicity

Related measures

  • TCID50
    Tissue Culture Infective Dosage
  • Plaque forming units
    (pfu)

References

  1. ^ "Absolute lethal dose (LD100)". IUPAC Gold Book. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Archived from the original on 2019-07-01. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
  2. ^ "What is a LD50 and LC50?". OSH Answers Fact Sheets. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. 5 October 2021.
  3. ^ "Allergan Receives FDA Approval for First-of-Its-Kind, Fully in vitro, Cell-Based Assay for BOTOX and BOTOX Cosmetic (onabotulinumtoxinA)". Allergan Web site. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
  4. Washington Post
    . Retrieved 2011-06-26.
  5. ^ Doris V. Sweet, ed. (July 1997). "Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) / Comprehensive Guide to the RTECS" (PDF). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-119. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-16.
  6. ^ Ernest Hodgson (2004). A Textbook of Modern Toxicology. Wiley-Interscience (3rd ed.).[page needed]
  7. ^ "Material Safety Data Sheet Water MSDS". Section 11: Toxicological Information for the LD50 verification. Archived from the original on 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
  8. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sucrose". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-06-12.
  9. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for Corn Syrup". fishersci.com. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
  10. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for glucose" (PDF). utoronto.ca. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-01. Retrieved 2016-12-31.
  11. PMID 10736380
    .
  12. .
  13. ^ "Toxicological profile for gasoline" (PDF). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. June 1995. p. 47. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-05-15. Retrieved 2020-01-05.
  14. Oxford University. 2005-10-09. Archived from the original
    on 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2007-02-21.
  15. ^ "Glyphosate-isopropylammonium". PubChem.
  16. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for Lactose" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-03. Retrieved 2016-12-31.
  17. ^ "Material Safety Data Sheet: Aspartame" (PDF). Spectrum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-26.
  18. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for urea". 2015-03-06. Section 11: Toxicological Information for the LD50 verification. Archived from the original on 2015-03-01. Retrieved 2015-03-06.
  19. ^ a b c A.A. Babayan, A.V.Aleksandryan, "Toxicological characteristics of melamine cyanurate, melamine and cyanuric acid", Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Klinicheskoi Meditsiny, Vol.25, 345–9 (1985). Original article in Russian.
  20. ^ Advanced Search – Alfa Aesar – A Johnson Matthey Company Archived 2015-07-24 at the Wayback Machine. Alfa.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
  21. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for ethyl alcohol". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-07-14.
  22. ^ Mecler FJ (May 1981). Mammalian Toxological Evaluation of DIMP and DCBP (Phase 3 – IMPA) (Final report). Litton Bionetics, Inc. Archived from the original on October 4, 2013. The oral LD50 values for the test material, IMPA, were 7650 and 6070 mg/kg for male and female rats, respectively.
  23. ^ "Safety data for taurine" (PDF). scbt.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-18. Retrieved 2017-01-18.
  24. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for fructose". sciencelab.com. Archived from the original on 2017-07-02. Retrieved 2016-12-31.
  25. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium molybdate". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-01-28.
  26. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium chloride". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-06-07.
  27. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for paracetamol". Millipore Sigma. Merck KGaA.
  28. PMID 4852457
    .
  29. ^ "MSDS of CBD" (PDF). chemblink.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2016-12-26.
  30. ^ "Methanol Poisoning Overview". antizol.com. Archived from the original on 2011-10-05.
  31. ^ "Arsenic". PubChem.
  32. ^ "Ibuprofen – National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.
  33. ^ "Formaldehyde SIDS Initial Assessment Report" (PDF). inchem.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-06-13. Retrieved 2016-12-26.
  34. ^ "Solanine – National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.
  35. ^ Frank T. Sanders, ed. (August 2006). Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Alkyl Dimethyl Benzyl Ammonium Chloride (ADBAC) (PDF) (Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. p. 114. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-24. Retrieved 2009-03-31.
  36. ^ Coumarin Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Archived 2004-10-21 at the Wayback Machine
  37. – via Google Books.
  38. ^ "Material Safety Data Sheet: Hydrochloric acid 32-38% solution". Fisher. 1 April 2008.
  39. ^ "Ketamine" (PDF). nih.gov.
  40. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for acetylsalicylic acid". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16.
  41. PMID 13659532
    .
  42. ^ "Material Safety Data Sheet – Spent Metal Catalyst" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28.
  43. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium nitrite". ox.ac.uk.[dead link]
  44. S2CID 30689421
    .
  45. ^ a b "Chemical toxicity of uranium" (PDF). who.int.
  46. .
  47. ^ "Bisoprolol". www.drugbank.ca.
  48. ^ "Cocaine". www.drugbank.ca. Archived from the original on 2016-11-20. Retrieved 2016-12-26.
  49. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for cobalt (II) chloride". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-04-07.
  50. ^ Safety (MSDS) data for cadmium oxide[permanent dead link]
  51. ^ "Thiopental sodium". Pubchem.
  52. ^ "Demeton-s-methyl". Extoxnet. September 1995.
  53. PMID 19897075
    .
  54. ^ "Sodium fluoride". hazard.com. Archived from the original on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2011-07-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  55. ^
    PMID 24091634
    .
  56. ^ "Pentaborane chemical and safety data" (PDF). noaa.gov.
  57. ^ "Capsaicin Material Safety Data Sheet". sciencelab.com. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
  58. ^ "MSDS for cholecalciferol crystalline" (PDF). hmdb.ca. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2016-12-26.
  59. ^ "Material Safety Data Sheet: Piperidine". Fisher. 29 October 2007.
  60. ^ "Diamorphine (PIM 261F, French)". www.inchem.org. Archived from the original on 2016-05-02. Retrieved 2016-12-26.
  61. ^ Erowid LSD (Acid) Vault : Fatalities / Deaths. Erowid.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
  62. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for arsenic trioxide". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2010-03-09.
  63. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for metallic arsenic". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-01-14.
  64. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium cyanide". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2009-01-13.
  65. ^ "Chlorotoxin: A Helpful Natural Scorpion Peptide to Diagnose Glioma and Fight Tumor Invasion".
  66. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for hydrogen cyanide" (PDF). orica.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2016-12-26.
  67. ^ "Critical Review Carfentanil" (PDF). Retrieved 2019-01-31.
  68. ^ "Hexachloroethane" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-03.
  69. ^ INCHEM: Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations: Strychnine.
  70. ^ "Mercuric Chloride Safety Data Sheet" (PDF). LabChem. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-11-26. Retrieved 2020-01-06.
  71. .
  72. ^ "Safety (MSDS) data for aflatoxin B1". ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2010-08-11.
  73. ^ Voelz GL, Buican IG (2000). "Plutonium and Health — How great is the risk?" (PDF). Los Alamos Science (26): 74–89.
  74. .
  75. ^ "Bufotoxin". ChemIDplus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  76. ^ "Brodifacoum (PDS)". Inchem.org. Archived from the original on 2013-12-13. Retrieved 2017-12-05.
  77. ^ Moskalev YI (1961). "Biological Effects of Cesium-137". In Lebedinskiĭ AV, Moskalev YI (eds.). Distribution, Biological Effects, and Migration of Radioactive Isotopes. Translation Series. United States Atomic Energy Commission (published April 1974). p. 220. AEC-tr-7512. [(21.5 μCi/g) × (1000 g/kg) × (0.0114 μg/μCi) = 245 μg/kg]
  78. .
  79. ^ "CDC - Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH): Chlorine trifluoride - NIOSH Publications and Products". www.cdc.gov. 2018-11-02. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
  80. S2CID 20713579
    .
  81. .
  82. .
  83. ^ Venomous Animals and their Venoms, vol. III, ed. Wolfgang Bücherl and Eleanor Buckley
  84. ^ "Aconitine – National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.
  85. PMID 11217716
    .
  86. .
  87. ^ "Fentanyl". www.drugbank.ca. Archived from the original on 2017-07-11. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
  88. ^ LD50 for various snakes Archived 2012-02-01 at the Wayback Machine. Seanthomas.net. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
  89. .
  90. .
  91. .
  92. ^ Henderson N, Wright K, Morgan D, Tantum P. "Black Widow Venom (α-Latrotoxin)". Archived from the original (pptx) on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2016-12-26.
  93. S2CID 23541883
    .
  94. ^ a b Patocka J, Streda L (2002). "Brief review of natural nonprotein neurotoxins". ASA Newsletter. 2 (2): 16–24.
  95. PMID 20631873
    .
  96. .
  97. ^ "PubChem Compound Summary for CID 71460273, Maitotoxin". PubChem. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
  98. ^ Topic 2 Toxic Chemicals and Toxic Effects Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
  99. ^ a b c Toolson E. "Representative LD50 Values" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-12. Retrieved 2016-12-26.
  100. .
  101. ^ Winfried K (2013). "Lethal dose". www.euronuclear.org. Archived from the original on 2018-08-04. Retrieved 2018-09-15.
  102. S2CID 199067092
    .
  103. ^ Thirty-Two Years of Measurable Change Archived 2007-02-11 at the Wayback Machine
  104. PMID 2210519
    .
  105. .
  106. .

External links

  • Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
  • Lipnick RL, Cotruvo JA, Hill RN, Bruce RD, Stitzel KA, Walker AP, et al. (March 1995). "Comparison of the up-and-down, conventional LD50, and fixed-dose acute toxicity procedures". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 33 (3): 223–31.
    PMID 7896233
    .
This page is based on the copyrighted Wikipedia article: LD50. Articles is available under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license; additional terms may apply.Privacy Policy