Laboratory mouse
The laboratory mouse or lab mouse is a small
Other mouse species sometimes used in laboratory research include two American species, the
History as a biological model
Mice have been used in biomedical research since the 17th century when William Harvey used them for his studies on reproduction and blood circulation and Robert Hooke used them to investigate the biological consequences of an increase in air pressure.[2] During the 18th century Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier both used mice to study respiration. In the 19th century Gregor Mendel carried out his early investigations of inheritance on mouse coat color but was asked by his superior to stop breeding in his cell "smelly creatures that, in addition, copulated and had sex".[2] He then switched his investigations to peas but, as his observations were published in a somewhat obscure botanical journal, they were virtually ignored for over 35 years until they were rediscovered in the early 20th century. In 1902 Lucien Cuénot published the results of his experiments using mice which showed that Mendel's laws of inheritance were also valid for animals — results that were soon confirmed and extended to other species.[2]
In the early part of the 20th century,
The Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine is currently one of the world's largest suppliers of laboratory mice, at around 3 million mice a year.[5] The laboratory is also the world's source for more than 8,000 strains of genetically defined mice and is home of the Mouse Genome Informatics database.[6]
Reproduction
Breeding onset occurs at about 50 days of age in both females and males, although females may have their first
The average gestation period is 20 days. A fertile
Newborn males are distinguished from newborn females by noting the greater
Genetics and strains
Mice are mammals of the
Euarchontoglires |
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Laboratory mice are the same species as the
Most laboratory mice are hybrids of different subspecies, most commonly of Mus musculus domesticus and Mus musculus musculus. Laboratory mice can have a variety of coat colours, including agouti, black and
Genome
Sequencing of the laboratory mouse
Mutant and transgenic strains
Various mutant strains of mice have been created by a number of methods. A small selection from the many available strains includes -
- Mice resulting from ordinary breeding and inbreeding:
- diabetes mellitus type 1.
- Murphy Roths large (MRL) mice, with unusual regenerative capacities[13]
- Japanese waltzing mice, which walk in a circular pattern due to a mutation adversely affecting their inner ears
- transplantation.
- Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice, with an almost completely defective immune system
- FVB mice, whose large litter sizes and large oocyte pronuclei expedite use in genetic research
- recessive mutation tx which arose in an inbred. Theophilos et al. 1996 found this to be genetic and localized to chromosome 8, near the centromere.[14]
- Transgenic mice, with foreign genes inserted into their genome:
- Abnormally large mice, with an inserted rat growth hormone gene
- Oncomice, with an activated oncogene, so as to significantly increase the incidence of cancer
- Doogie mice, with enhanced NMDA receptor function, resulting in improved memory and learning
- Knockout mice, where a specific gene was made inoperable by a technique known as gene knockout: the purpose is to study the function of the gene's product or to simulate a human disease
- Fat mice, prone to obesity due to a carboxypeptidase E deficiency
- Strong muscular mice, with a disabled myostatin gene, nicknamed "mighty mice".
Since 1998, it has been possible to clone mice from cells derived from adult animals.
Commonly used inbred strains
There are many
Inbred mice have several traits that make them ideal for research purposes. They are
Many inbred strains have well documented traits that make them ideal for specific types of research. The following table shows the top 10 most popular strains according to Jackson Laboratories.
Strain | Coat color[17] | Common research uses | Total Pubmed publications referencing the strain as of April 19, 2023[18] |
---|---|---|---|
C3HeB/FeJ | Agouti | Immunology, inflammation, autoimmunity[19] | 482 |
NOD/ShiLtJ | Albino | Autoimmune type 1 diabetes[20] | 105 |
DBA/1J | Dilute brown | Rheumatoid arthritis[21] | 445 |
BALB/cByJ | Albino | Cancer, cardiovascular, immunology[22] | 628 |
DBA/2J | Dilute brown | Cardiovascular, dermatology, developmental biology[23] | 2,722 |
C3H/HeJ | Agouti | Cancer, cardiovascular, hematology[24] | 4,037 |
C57BL/6J | Black | General purpose, background[25] | 25,723 |
SJL/J | Albino | Cancer, cardiovascular, dermatology[26] | 1,448 |
FVB/NJ | Albino | Immunology, inflammation, autoimmunity[27] | 350 |
129S1/SvImJ | Agouti | Targeted mutations, cancer[28] | 222 |
Jackson Labs DO project
The Jackson Labs DO (Diversity Outbred) project[30] is a mouse breeding program using multiple inbred founder strains to create a genetically diverse population of mice for use in scientific research.
These mice are designed for fine
This project has resulted in over 1,000 genetically diverse mice which have been used to identify genetic factors for diseases such as obesity, cancer, diabetes, and alcohol use disorder. [32]
Strain | Derivation | Subspecies origin | Coat color[17] | Common research uses | Total Pubmed publications referencing the strain as of April 19, 2023 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A/J | Laboratory | Mus musculus domesticus[33] | Albino | Cancer, immunology[34] | 5,500 |
C57BL/6J | Laboratory | Mus musculus domesticus[33] | Black | General purpose, background[25] | 25,723 |
129S1/SvImJ | Laboratory | Mus musculus domesticus | Agouti[28] | Targeted mutations, cancer[28] | 222 |
NOD/ShiLtJ | Laboratory | Mus musculus domesticus[33] | Albino | Autoimmune type 1 diabetes[20] | 105 |
NZO/HILtJ | Laboratory | Mus musculus domesticus[33] | Agouti | Obesity[35] | 11 |
CAST/EiJ | Wild-derived | Mus musculus castanus[33] | Agouti | genetic mapping[36] |
154 |
PWK/PhJ | Wild-derived | Mus musculus musculus [33] | Agouti | Genetic mapping[37] |
52 |
WSB/EiJ | Wild-derived | Mus musculus domesticus[33] | Agouti with head blaze, greyish coat | 65 |
Appearance and behaviour
Laboratory mice have retained many of the physical and behavioural characteristics of house mice; however, due to many generations of artificial selection, some of these characteristics now vary markedly. Due to the large number of strains of laboratory mice, it is impractical to comprehensively describe the appearance and behaviour of all of them; however, they are described below for two of the most commonly used strains.
C57BL/6
C57BL/6 mice have a dark brown, nearly black coat. They are more sensitive to noise and odours and are more likely to bite than the more docile laboratory strains such as BALB/c.[39]
Group-housed C57BL/6 mice (and other strains) display barbering behaviour, in which the dominant mouse in a cage selectively removes hair from its subordinate cage mates.[40] Mice that have been barbered extensively can have large bald patches on their bodies, commonly around the head, snout, and shoulders, although barbering may appear anywhere on the body. Both hair and vibrissae may be removed. Barbering is more frequently seen in female mice; male mice are more likely to display dominance through fighting.[41]
C57BL/6 has several unusual characteristics which make it useful for some research studies but inappropriate for others: It is unusually sensitive to pain and to cold, and
BALB/c
BALB/c is an
BALB/c are noted for displaying high levels of anxiety and for being relatively resistant to diet-induced atherosclerosis, making them a useful model for cardiovascular research.[47][48]
Male BALB/c mice are aggressive and will fight other males if housed together. However, the BALB/Lac substrain is much more docile.[49] Most BALB/c mice substrains have a long reproductive life-span.[46]
There are noted differences between different BALB/c substrains, though these are thought to be due to
Tg2576
A useful model for
Husbandry
Handling
Traditionally, laboratory mice have been picked up by the base of the tail. However, recent research has shown that this type of handling increases anxiety and aversive behaviour.[59] Instead, handling mice using a tunnel or cupped hands is advocated. In behavioural tests, tail-handled mice show less willingness to explore and to investigate test stimuli, as opposed to tunnel-handled mice which readily explore and show robust responses to test stimuli.[60]
Nutrition
In nature, mice are usually herbivores, consuming a wide range of fruit or grain.[61] However, in laboratory studies it is usually necessary to avoid biological variation and to achieve this, laboratory mice are almost always fed only commercial pelleted mouse feed. Food intake is approximately 15 g (0.53 oz) per 100 g (3.5 oz) of body weight per day; water intake is approximately 15 ml (0.53 imp fl oz; 0.51 US fl oz) per 100 g of body weight per day.[7]
Injection procedures
Route |
Recommended site[62] | Needle gauge[62] |
Maximal volume[63] |
---|---|---|---|
subcutaneous | dorsum, between scapula | 25-26 ga |
2-3 ml
|
intraperitoneal |
left lower quadrant |
25-27 ga | 2-3 ml |
intravenous |
lateral tail vein | 27-28 ga | 0.2 ml |
intramuscular |
hindlimb, caudal thigh | 26-27 ga | 0.05 ml |
intracerebral | cranium | 27 ga |
To facilitate intravenous injection into the tail, laboratory mice can be carefully warmed under heat lamps to
Anaesthesia
A common regimen for
Euthanasia
Approved procedures for
Pathogen susceptibility
A recent study detected a murine astrovirus in laboratory mice held at more than half of the US and Japanese institutes investigated.[67] Murine astrovirus was found in nine mice strains, including NSG, NOD-SCID, NSG-3GS, C57BL6-Timp-3−/−, uPA-NOG, B6J, ICR, Bash2, and BALB/C, with various degrees of prevalence. The pathogenicity of the murine astrovirus was not known.
Legislation in research
United Kingdom
In the U.K., as with all other vertebrates and some invertebrates, any scientific procedure which is likely to cause "pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm" is regulated by the Home Office under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. U.K. regulations are considered amongst the most comprehensive and rigorous in the world.[68] Detailed data on the use of laboratory mice (and other species) in research in the U.K. are published each year.[69] In the U.K. in 2013, there were a total of 3,077,115 regulated procedures on mice in scientific procedure establishments, licensed under the Act.[70]
United States
In the U.S., laboratory mice are not regulated under the
Limitations
While mice are by far the most widely used animals in biomedical research, recent studies have highlighted their limitations.
Mice differ from humans in several immune properties: mice are more resistant to some
An article in The Scientist notes, "The difficulties associated with using animal models for human disease result from the metabolic, anatomic, and cellular differences between humans and other creatures, but the problems go even deeper than that" including issues with the design and execution of the tests themselves.[76] In addition, the caging of laboratory animals may render them irrelevant models of human health because these animals lack day-to-day variations in experiences, agency, and challenges that they can overcome.[89] The impoverished environments inside small mouse cages can have deleterious influences on biomedical results, especially with respect to studies of mental health and of systems that depend upon healthy psychological states.[90]
For example, researchers have found that many mice in laboratories are obese from excess food and minimal exercise, which alters their physiology and drug metabolism.[91] Many laboratory animals, including mice, are chronically stressed, which can also negatively affect research outcomes and the ability to accurately extrapolate findings to humans.[92][93] Researchers have also noted that many studies involving mice are poorly designed, leading to questionable findings.[76][78][79]
Some studies suggests that inadequate published data in animal testing may result in irreproducible research, with missing details about how experiments are done are omitted from published papers or differences in testing that may introduce bias. Examples of hidden bias include a 2014 study from McGill University which suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels.[94][5][95][96] Another study in 2016 suggested that gut microbiomes in mice may have an impact upon scientific research.[97]
Market size
The worldwide market for gene-altered mice is predicted to grow to $1.59 billion by 2022, growing at a rate of 7.5 percent per year.[98]
See also
- Laboratory rat
- Animal testing
- Animal testing on rodents
- Animal model
- Animal Identification
- Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey, five laboratory mice who orbited the Moon 75 times on Apollo 17
- Mouse models of colorectal and intestinal cancer
- Pinky and the Brain
- Testing cosmetics on animals
- Monument to the laboratory mouse
- TetTag
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Further reading
- Musser GG, Carleton MD (2005). "Superfamily Muroidea". In Wilson, D.E., Reeder, D.M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: a taxonomic and geographic reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 894–1531. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0.
- Nyby J (2001). "Ch. 1 Auditory communication in adults". In Willott, James F. (ed.). Handbook of Mouse Auditory Research: From Behavior to Molecular Biology. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 3–18. ISBN 9780849323287.
External links
Taxonomy
Genetics
- Ensembl Mus musculus genome browser, from the EnsemblProject
- Vega Mus musculus genome browser, includes NOD mouse sequence and annotation
Media
- Pictures, movies and applets showing the anatomy of Mus musculus, from www.digimorph.org
- Michael Purdy: "Researchers add mice to list of creatures that sing in the presence of mates"-Study of male mouse "song" with mouse song recording (MP3), by Washington University Medical School
- "It's just in mice! This scientist is calling out hype in science reporting". STAT. 2019-04-15.
- Arkive Photographs.Short text.
- High-Resolution Brain Maps and Brain Atlases of Mus musculus
Further reading
- Biology of the Mouse, from the Louisiana Veterinary Medical Association
- Nature Mouse Special 2002
- Biology of Laboratory Rodents by David G. Besselsen